Zovnishnya Gorbachev's politics didn't work. Domestic policy of M.S. Gorbachev". Gorbachov's reforms in the old politics
Kvіten - At the kvіtnevy Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev hung out the "early".
May 7 - Decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of the SRSR about the return of alcoholism and alcoholism - the beginning of Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign.
Mikhailo Gorbachev
1986
February 25 - 6 birch - XXVII z'izd CPRS changes the party program, voting for a course towards "complete socialism" (and not towards "promoting communism", as before); namіchayuchi until 2000 to bring the economic potential of the SRSR and secure the skin of the sіm'ї okrem apartment chi budinok (program "Zhytlo-2000"). The Brezhnev period of names here is the "epoch of stagnation." Gorbachev's call to the development of "glasnost".
April 8 - Gorbachev's visit to the VAZ near Togliatti. Here it is louder and louder to go out about the need for a “rehabilitation” of socialism.
26 April - Chornobyl disaster . Irrespective of her, in the places where they recognized the influx of radiation, on the 1st of January, rich crowds of the first grass demonstrations are held.
Chest - Rotation A. Sakharova from the Gorky settlement to Moscow.
17-18 pm - Nationalistic praise of Kazakh youth, more importantly Russian, for the national warehouse of Alma-Ata ("Zheltoksan").
1987
Sichen - Plenum of the Central Committee "for personnel nutrition". Gorbachev declares about the need for "alternative" elections (from a number of candidates) for party and radian plantations.
September 13 - Decree of the Council of Ministers allows the creation of joint radyansko-zakordonnyh undertakings.
Lyuty - Decree the Council of Ministers to allow the creation of cooperatives for the provision of services to the population and the production of comrades of the people's welfare.
May 6 - The first unauthorized demonstration of an uncommon and non-communist organization (the "Memory" partnership) near Moscow.
11 chernya - Decree of the Central Committee and Council of Ministers of the SRSR "On the transfer of undertakings and organizations of the galleys of the people's dominion to the latest state transparency and self-financing."
30 chernya - Adoption of the law "On the sovereign enterprise (unification)" (gaining rank on September 1, 1988). (Products that were developed by the enterprises after the state decree, can now be sold at free prices. The number of ministries and departments has been shortened. The labor collectives of enterprises are given the right to choose directors and regulate wages.)
September 23 - Rallies near Tallinn, Riza and Vilnius near the river of the Molotov Pact - Ribbentrop.
21 Zhovtnya - Wystup B. Yeltsin at the plenum of the Central Committee with criticism of "more tempo of re-budding" and "the cult of Gorbachev, which is being born."
11th leaf fall - Yeltsin was taken from the seat of the first secretary of the Moscow City Communist Party of Russia (on February 18, 1988, he was removed from the Politburo).
1988
Lyuty - The session of people's deputies in the Nagirno-Karabakh joint-stock partnership is being held from the sidelines for the removal of the region from the warehouse of Azerbaijan and the arrival to Vrmeniї. (On the 22nd of February - a skirmish between the Armenians and the Azerbaijanis near Askeran because of the death of two deaths. On the 26th of February - a million rally near Yerevan. On the 27-29th of February - the Armenian pogrom near Sumgaiti.)
1 birch - Decree of the Politburo, which allows the Komsomol bodies to establish commercial organizations.
April 5 - Official statement by Nina Andreeva: article by A. Yakovlev “Principles of Perestroika, Revolutionary Thought That Diy” by Pravda. The Statue of Andreeva is called here "a manifesto of anti-perpetual forces."
5-18 chervnya - All-Union urochist come in, in honor of the 1000th birthday of Russia.
28 chernya - 1 lipnya - ХІХ party conference of the CPRS. Before the end, Gorbachev will hold out the decision to blame the coming session of the Supreme Council for the sake of a plan for constitutional reform from the foundation of a new future sovereign body- Z'izda people's deputies. (At the same conference in the house of animal Є. Ligachova to Yeltsin: “Boris, you are wrong!”)
11th of spring – 300,000 “Song of Estonia” rally near Tallinn calling for independence of Estonia.
30 Veresnya - At the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the largest of Stalin's hours "purge" of the Politburo will be held.
July 1 - We will cover the head of the Gorbachev party with the address of the head of the state - the Head of the Presidium of the Supreme Council for the sake of the SRSR (deputy of the abducted) O. Gromiko).
16 leaf fall - Voting "sovereignty" (supremacy of the laws of the USSR over the laws of the SRSR) one of the allied republics - Estonia. (The first such example. Let's do it yourself Lithuania in the grass 1989, Latvia in the lime 1989, Azerbaijan in the spring 1989, Georgia in the grass 1990, Russia, Uzbekistan and Moldova in the red 1990, Ukraine and Belarus in the lime 1990, Tajikistan in the sickle 1990, Kazakhstan in Zhovtni 1990, Kyrgyzstan in infants 1990.)
1st day - Adoption by the Verkhovna Rada of the law "On the election of people's deputies of the SRSR", which changes the Constitution of the SRSR of 1977. (Two-thirds of people's deputies can turn to the population, a third - to "communal organizations." The forthcoming Congress of People's Deputies in May elected a new Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR.)
Leaf fall - chest - Massive pogroms in Azerbaijan and Azerbaijani near Virmenia.
1989
Berezen - The first elections to the Z'yzd of people's deputies of the SRSR.
18th Birch - 30,000th meeting of the Abkhaz people in the village of Likhni for the first time Abkhazia was brought to the warehouse of Georgia and restored to the status of a union republic.
Night on April 9 - Rozgin rally near Tbilisi, elected to protest against the Abkhaz podium.
May 25 - 9 chernya - First Z'izd of people's deputies of the SRSR. Obrannya Gorbachev Head of the Supreme for the Sake of the SRSR. Creation at the z'їzdі "Mіzhregіonal'noї grupi" under the fumes of the struggle for democracy. A. Sakharov's booing to the big air.
Grass - cherv - Battles between Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks near the Fergana region.
Summer - Shakhtar strikes stun most of the coal areas in the country.
April 11 – The “Union for the sake of labor collectives” was created in Tiraspol to prevent the praise of the law on the official status of Moldova for one less Moldavian movie – the beginning of the Transnistrian conflict.
Serpen - The magazine "Noviy Svit" publishes the publication "The Gulag Archipelago" A.I. Solzhenitsyn.
November 29 - The Verkhovna Rada of the RRFSR adopts amendments to the Constitution of Russia, which will establish the Republican Z'izd of People's Deputies (900 deputies in territorial districts in proportion to the population and 168 in other regions and national institutions).
10 leaf fall - Pivdenno-Ossetian Autonomous Region will vote for itself an autonomous republic at the warehouse of Georgia.
12-24 chest - ІІ-th Congress of People's Deputies of the SRSR. The democratic minority urged on the new clause of Article 6 of the Constitution of the SRSR about "the key directive role of the CPRS" in the state.
1990
September 13-20 - Virmensky pogrom near Baku. The introduction of shodo yogo prinennya at the places of the army units (“Black Sichen”).
Lyuty - Mass rallies near Moscow, in addition to the statute of the 6th constitution.
March 11 - Lithuania will vote its exit from the SRSR. (The first such example. On 4 and 8 January 1990, they themselves roar Latvia and Estonia, 9 April 1991 - Georgia. The other republics, the Crimea of Belarus, come from the SRSR after the Serpnevy Putsch.)
15 birch - ІІІ-th Z'їzd People's Deputies of the SRSR voted the 6th article of the constitution and elected Gorbachev the President of the SRSR. (Gorbachev takes the post of the General Secretary of the CPRS. A. Luk'yanov is the head of the Supreme Council for the sake of the SRSR.)
Berezen - Election of People's Deputies of the Union Republics of the SRSR.
April 3 - Law "On the procedure for the delivery of food, connected with the exit of the Union Republic from the warehouse of the SRSR." In view of the holding of the republic before the exit of the referendum - and the transitional period until the examination of all the contested meals.
May 24 - Speaker of the head of the order, M. Rizhkova, at the Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR, to add opinion on the concept of transition to regulation market economy, zokrema about the future price reform. Hearing this promo on TV, people immediately rush to the shops, picking up products from the counters.
30 April - Declaration on the sovereign sovereignty of Tatarstan (the first such butt from the side of not a union, but even an autonomous republic?).
Spring 18 - at " Komsomolskiy Pravda” and “Literaturniy gazeti” was entrusted with the article A.I. Solzhenitsyn “How can we control Russia? » You see the imminent collapse of communism and propagate the paths a distant development edge.
9 Zhovtnya - Praise for the law "On community associations”, What gives the right to create political parties.
Zhovten - The Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR adopts "The main direct stabilization of the people's state and the beginning of the market economy."
7th leaf fall - Zamakh A. Shmonov on Gorbachov street for an hour of demonstration in honor of the riverwoman of the Zhovtnevoy revolution.
Gruden - IV Third Party of People's Deputies of the SRSR recognizes the referendum on saving the SRSR as a "renovated federation of equal sovereign republics." The introduction of the post of vice-president of the SRSR (G. Yanaeva was chosen by him). December 20 - a statement to the letter of E. Shevardnadze about the "permanent dictatorship" and the release of yoga from the prison of the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
26th day - Replacement of the big Council of Ministers (subordinated by the Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR) by the Cabinet of Ministers (appointed by the presidents of the SRSR).
Gorbachev bіla Stіni I cry in Єrusalimі, 1992
1991
September 22 - "Pavlov's penny reform": redemption of 50 and 100-ruble bills from replacing them with more new ones, but not more than 1000 rubles per person and more than a stretch three days(September 23-25). The fence is charged from bank accounts over 500 rubles per month per person. 14 billion rubles were forfeited for the help of the reforms.
March 17 - Referendum "on saving the SRSR as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics." (Having given a double-valued result: from one side, over three quarters of the participants hung for saving the SRSR in a new look, ale, s іnshoy, in the lower republics, those same votes were voted on supplementary food about their sovereignty - and more of it was pіdrimalo. Six union republics: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Virmeniya, Georgia, Moldova – voted in a referendum.
April 23 - The first meeting of representatives of the nine Soviet republics at Novo-Ogaryovo on the reform of the SRSR. Cob rozrobki project to the Union of Sovereign Powers (SSS).
12 chernya - Yeltsin is declared president of the RRFSR. (Most of the inhabitants of Russia voted in a referendum on February 17, 1991 for the establishment of the post of republican president.)
Spring 5 - Law of the SRSR "On the organs of state power and management of the Split of the RSR in the transitional period." Created on the basis of Sovereign for the sake of the SRSR at the warehouse of the President of the SRSR and the greater gardening estates of the ten union republics. At their first meeting, on the 6th of spring, they recognized the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
Zhovten - On the basis of the law of September 5, 1991, a new Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR is created from deputies in 7 union republics and posterigachiv in 3 union republics. (Kolishnіy VS pinned the meeting on 31 April 1991.)
Leaf fall - Gorbachev to emerge from the KPRS, fenced in by Yeltsinim.
14 leaf fall - Kerіvniki of seven of the twelve union republics (Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) and the President of the SRSR Mikhailo Gorbachov declare about us on 9 December to lay down an agreement on the creation of RSD.
1 March - Choose a president and a referendum in Ukraine, at the same time for independence, over 90% of the voters are elected.
On the 5th day of the month - meeting between Yeltsin and Gorbachov to discuss the prospects for RSD in connection with the votes on the independence of Ukraine. Yeltsin's statement about those who "without Ukraine, the union agreement will waste any sense."
8 chest - Bіlovezskiy agreement about the dissolution of the USSR and the creation of the SND from three powers: Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.
December 21 - Alma-Ata declaration on the admission to the SND of seven more republics. Decree For the sake of the heads of powers of the SND about the dovіchnі pіlgi Gorbachov at the razі її vіdstavki.
December 25 - Gorbachev announces his volunteer appointment to the President of the SRSR. The next day, goloshuetsya about pinning the foundation of the SRSR.
Born on the 2nd of February 1931 in the village of Privilne, Stavropol Territory, among the same villagers. In his youth, the future head of the state worked at the Stavropol Regional Komitet, and then at the CPRS committee, and in 1973, having spent Politburo Central Committee of the CPSU.
March 11, 1985, after the death of the General Secretary Chernenko, Mikhail Sergiyovich was propowed to the seat of the General Secretary, shards about the new goodness Andropov, i associate Brezhnev- Suslov. Cream of that, come Gorbachov having become, for the singing sensi, the entrance to the gerontocracy of the ceramics of the Radyansky Union (the remaining ceramics of the state were all old and ill).
The work of Mikhail Gorbachev began tragically (ended up, on the other hand, not with the best rank) - on April 26, 1986, the fate was trapped accident at Chornobyl NPP. Chornobyl Thice the stica TROOKh Sloby Repubblak - RRFSR, URSR I BRSR - NIBI, I am a symbol of the Maybutnoye Rozkol I, Podchbto, Buv is a hunger for piddlastniya (sort of chimalo prikhilnikov, vipadkovo, vipadkovo, viclican Radyansky Union). The cause of the accident in the house is the cooling down of the nuclear reactor, further overheating and vibration. However, the cause of the failure is unknown. On the eve of the first trauma, St. Gorbachev punished not to reveal the scale of the accident, so that the demonstrations in Kiev and Minsk went beyond the plan, which was absolutely inhumane, protecting the health of people.
U 1987 roci general secretary CPSU Central Committee having signed the marginally imperceptible Radyansk Union agreement on liquidation of missiles medium and short range, for which the Union is looking for more nuclear weapons, lower than the States received. The reason for such a thing is called either the short-sightedness of the kerіvnik of the country, or the fight against the new anti-missile defense system of the Americans. COI, which turned out to be a real bluff). From the other side, otrimana Gorbachov pіznіshe Nobel Prize for the world and the first fee in history of one million dollars, it’s hard to think that it’s not swag of an unsatisfactory scale.
On April 23, 1985, Mikhailo Gorbachev initiated a series of large-scale reforms in the economy and internal politics of the SRSR, as if they were taking away the name " Perebudova". And until Sichnya 1987, Perebudov became the official ideology of the Radyansk Union.
The main change was the change in the course of the socialist development. Gorbachev voted new democratic socialism that vіdmova vіd vіdіvnitstva komunіzmu. New socialism has become crazy radyanskoy ideologyі good democracy . All were rehabilitated disidenti and other sacrifices political repressions, voted " glasnost» і freedom of speech the possibility of engaging in private business under sovereign control ( cooperatives), and the promises of undertakings were translated into state education.
On what positive moments did the budding end. The economic reformation was carried out carelessly and inconsistently, often drawing on radical approaches. So, the anti-alcohol campaign (for її methods) Gorbachev himself later recognized the pardon. The law on private ownership has turned into a struggle with grandmothers, yakі to sell tickets that day near the park near the weekend. Saying censorship having sprung up as if appearing to the children of their future power, and to the expansion of literature and the press through the door of obscene slander. With whom, national politics became zhorstkish. In 1988, there was a growing international conflict in Azerbaijan ( Nagirniy Karabakh), began to brew conflicts in Kazakhstan, in Ukraine and in the Baltic states.
The old borg of the SRSR, on the face of problems from the supply of oil, up to 1990, up to 70 billion dollars.
February 15, 1989 Afghanistan buli vivedenі all radyanskі vіyska, i afghan war, in fact, ended in nothing. On the thought of rich historians and political scientists, rіshuchі you could come in two or three years before the end of the conflict at the greed of the Radian Union, and the situation that developed in Afghanistan today would be good.
The new politics of Gorbachev was characterized by the friendly friends zі States that usієyu Western Europe, prote, on aphrodisiac internal crisis, tse looked no more positively, and navit trohi pіzrilo. So what else, it is necessary to know who Mikhail Gorbachev is cold war reached the end, and "stronghold of light socialism" in his program.
From the other side, poslya tsikh podіy, bipolar light system, turned into a monopolar one superpower- Received by the States of America. The Radyansk Union, having begun to spend allies, not only among the similar European and Asian lands, but also among its own powerful republics (and the Constitution of the SRSR did not formally protect them from the Union).
On March 15, 1990, a new settlement was created - President of the SRSR, having occupied Mikhailo Sergiyovich, which became a psychological turning point in the idea of Radyansky to the Union as a state.
In 1990, three Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) voted their independence. Moreover, Russia itself (RRFSR), following the decisions of the Secretary General on 12 March 1990, voted sovereignty. After that, the “parade of sovereignties” began, and the SRSR began to rise step by step, although they didn’t commemorate the huge river.
Podії sickle 1991 rock ( Serpnevy putsch) completed the collapse of the greatest power in the world.
December 25, 1991 Bіlovezskiy Pushcha Belarusian RSR signed Bіlovezka pleasing, after which the Union of Radyansk Socialist Republics pinned its foundation.
On the 27th star of the party, which happened in the fierce birch of 1986, the reform strategy was praised.
1985 - milestone in the history of the state and party. Brezhnevskaya doba ended.
At the birch of 1985, the fate of Gorbachev was greeted by the new General Secretary. Vin zmіtsniv svіy control of the Politburo, the secretariat that state apparatus, having taken away the stars of a number of potential opponents, and having transferred the pleasurable minister of foreign affairs A.A. Gromiko to the honorary post of the head of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR. A lot of ministers in a row and the first secretaries of the regional committees of the party were replaced by young people.
It's time to change, try reforming the party-powerful organism. This period of the history of the country was called "re-budding" and associated with the idea of "perfect socialism".
The 27th z'izd of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union appeared near the fierce birch tree in 1986. On the new boulevard, the reform strategy was praised and a new party program was adopted, which included accelerating economic growth and reducing the minds of the population's life. Spontaneously, Gorbachev shied up to the policy of administration, such visits, like advancing the discipline of practice and the anti-alcohol campaign. And yet Gorbachev voted for a course on “perebudova” - the restructuring of the economy and, finally, the whole suspense-political arrangement. However, these reforms did not lack sufficient economic rationale, and they were not effectively implemented by the ideas of Lenin and Bukharin of the NEP (1921–1928).
The policy of glasnost (freedom of speech and openness of information) became the first noteworthy change in the society. Numerical hromada groups appeared, as if they were engaged in various types of cultural, sports, and educational activities. political activities.
Deyakі members of the Politburo in the country of Y.K. Die Gorbachov called out to the growing criticism of the population. Some criticized yogo for its inconsistency and inconsistency in the reforms carried out, others for its haste; all pointed out the super-discretion of the policy pursued by him. So, they praised the laws about the development of cooperation and mayzhe vіdrazu - about the fight against "speculation"; legislate on the democratization of business management and at once - on the strengthening of centralized planning; law about reform political system and freely choose, and once again - about the "replacement of the role of the party" then.
In 1990, the Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR adopted a resolution “On the concept of transition to a regulated market economy”. Several groups of economists have expanded their programs, the programs of S.N. Shatalin and G.A. Yavlinsky, on the eve of 1990, propagated their radical program of reforms “500 days”. For this program, it was decided to carry out decentralization of the economy, then further privatization of enterprises, state control over prices was allowed without work.
Ale before the implementation of the program Rizhkov - Abalkin was adopted. The whole concept was darkened, developed by the director of the Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the SRSR L.I. The sovereign sector of the economy is a more trivalent term with obov'yazkovym control from the side of the state over the private sector. But the reforms of the economy did not lead to a full blown, on the contrary, the income of the population was shortened, the growth of the population was speeding up, which indicated the growth of social discontent. The expansion of the current inflation approached up to 70 billion dollars. The Radyansk budget was heavily stale due to light oil prices, so light prices for naphtha were collapsed piece by piece. To vryatuvat ekonomіku, radianske kerіvnitstvo, krim reforms, demanded serious financial assistance from Western powers. On the linden forests of the graveyards of the seven industrially distinguished lands, Gorbachov turned to them from the avenues for help, but there was no help. In such a situation, a new union agreement was being prepared for the signing of the 1991 fate.
Zovnishnya politics
Gorbachev, calling out to the “new thought” from the international breeze, tried to make up for the cost of improving the vodnosiny from Zakhod, in order to reduce the high military vitrati.
It is not enough for the new idea to replace the practice of the great powers' super-nativity, and it led to the fact that the primordial human values of guilt stand more for the purpose of the class struggle. Therefore, radian diplomacy became more pronounced in nature, but really meant unilateral actions on the side of the SRSR. About the Europeans and the European continent Gorbachev, speaking like about “our sleeping booth”, looking forward to the new peace-loving nature of the Radian’s foreign policy. Starting a new approach, the bulk of the European territories of NATO (especially the FRN), Pivnichnoy America and other regions began to be put up to the SRSR with great trust and kindness.
SRSR having tried to reach new targets with the States received in the field of pollution control. The new Radianian strategic doctrine slandered its defensive intentions, slandering the method of “reasonable wealth”, and not superiority in defenses. At one time, the new Radyansky kerіvnik did not mention that, despite the support of the positions of the SRSR along with the main international problems, the position of the leaders of the Radyansky Union did not become more compromising. Usі agreements about obmezhennya ozbroen were signed on minds that were not visible to the SRSR. For a year it was said that Zahid had become a "new Gorbachev's thought" in order to stick his military bases to the very cordons of Russia.
At the end of 1985, Gorbachev announced a moratorium on the further spread of medium-range missiles (SS-20) from Europe. By the turn of the year 1987, Gorbachev adopted the “zero option” formula, tobto. complete dismantling of such missiles from Europe. At the breast 1987 Gorbachev and US President Reagan signed an agreement with Washington on the elimination of all ballistic missiles with a radius of 500 to 5500 km.
From 1987 to fate, the collapse of the socialist system of Schidnoy Europe began and until the autumn of 1989, the fate of all the countries of the Warsaw Pact (beginning with the formation of a new order in Poland, which was the beginning of the movement "Solidarity") led to the change of ceramics. In some lands it became bloodless, in others, like in Rumunia, the regime was overthrown by a wicked way. There was an "oxamite" revolution in Czechoslovakia, a people's rebellion in the PDR, Bulgaria and Romania. The Berlin Wall was destroyed and the process of the unification of the German Empire was opened. The USA and the FRN were ready to take serious actions, zocrema, discuss food about the neutrality of the united nation, which meant leaving NATO. Ale Gorbachev was in time for the meeting of Nimechchini and without leaving NATO.
At 1989 wisnovok appeared radyansky viysk from the lands of the socialist bloc. At the fierce fate of 1990, the military organizations of the Organization of the Warsaw Pact were called for, and the organization of the Ryansk military from the Schidnoy of Europe was activated.
The parade of the Radian troops from Afghanistan ended on the 15th of February 1989. They began to rush to help the allied lands, the Soviet Union's presence in Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Nicaragua pinned down. The SRSR ceased to support Libya and Iraq. Enjoyed the blues from the PAR, Pivdenny Korea, Taiwan, and Israel.
Gorbachev tried to normalize the blue from China. For the adoption of the SRSR from Kampuchea, it was brought to the "єtnamska", that is, from Angola - the Cuban vijska. At the fate of 1986, Gorbachev inspired China with the spivpratsyu in the trans-boundary life and the thriving water resources of the Amur River and waited for the Chinese position from the head of the northern cordon pits. The number of radian troops, roztashovanih bridles of the Chinese cordon, was short-lived.
The legacy of the new idea is that, from one side, the main sub-bag was the easing of the threat of light nuclear missile war. And on the other hand, a similar block, having pinned its foundation, the Yalta-Potsdam system of international payments was disrupted, which caused a unipolar world.
Domestic policy.
Naprikintsy born in 1986 Gorbachev embarked on economic reforms. In the country, which has not yet survived the shock of the catastrophe at the Chornobyl nuclear power plant, a large-scale anti-alcohol campaign was launched. The price of alcohol was increased and the sales were reduced, the vineyards of the vineyards were depleted, which gave rise to a whole range of new problems - the production of moonshine (really, from the shops znik tsukor) and all kinds of surrogates increased sharply, - the budget recognized significant cuts. Adult drug use. Products and other goods became a "deficit", while the black market flourished at the same time.
Until the autumn of 1987, it became clear to the rock that, regardless of the trials of reforms, the economy of the country was going through a deep crisis. The pace of economic growth in the country slowed down, and Gorbachev hung out the phrase "accelerate social and economic development." In order to want the workers, the salary was increased, but without the increase in wages, the pennies were squandered to the residual income of the goods and the increase in inflation.
In order to secure the support of the intelligentsia, Gorbachev turned A.D. Sakharov from the appeal to Gorky. For Sakharov's letters, other dissidents were sent, and the Jewish "leaders" were allowed to emigrate to Israel. The campaign of “de-Stalinization” of the Suspіlstva was launched. On the cob of 1986 and on the cob of 1987 two significant anti-totalitarian creations appeared - an allegory film by Tengiz Abuladze repentance that novel by Anatoly Ribakov Children Arbat.
Rozbudova activated the growth of nationalism on the periphery. So, in the Baltic republics - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania - there was created a nationalistically established people's front, whose core acted for the sake of economic autonomy, the renewal of the rights of national cultures and cultures
Naprikintsy born in 1987 The population of the Nagirno-Karabakh Autonomous Region held mass demonstrations, on which it was possible to promote the unification of Armenia. The stench of the boulevards was driven by the oppressive people's movement at Virmenia. The government of Armenia formally wished for the independence of Nagir Karabakh, the pro-Azerbaijani government categorically declared its support. Having saved the conflict between Georgians and minorities Abkhazians and Ossetians from Georgia, they didn’t want to stay at the warehouse of the republic, but they wanted autonomy and inclusion to the warehouse of Russia.
The minds of the minds were filled with discord in the middle of the party curiosity. The stench was often simplistically portrayed as a stumbling block between reformers and conservatives. Ale conflict buv richly glibshim. T.sv. the ranks of conservators (which included Ligachov, Rizhkov) respected what was needed more order, discipline, more efficiency. The stench stood up for the fight against corruption, but the main parameters of the Radian power and the economy were little saved. Radical krylo (on choli z A. Yakovlev) called out to the establishment of the edge of the market vіdnosin and decentralization of virobnitstva, to the radical democratization of the state and the supremacy, tobto. to the edge of decisive reforms. B.N. Yeltsin, secretary of the Moscow party organization, calling out “privileges” to the liquidation. I want the conflict between Gorbachev and Yeltsin to become obvious, Gorbachev saw him as a potential ally in the fight against them, who did not support the idea of reforming.
The closing of the two groups reached its apogee after the publication of 13 February 1988 in the main party newspaper Pravda, the article by Nina Andreeva, in a yak Tezam Andreeva was sympathized with many people in the Politburo. For a long time it was thought that Gorbachev could gain control over the apparatus, and on April 5 in Pravda a proposition was published, written by a group of authors, stunned by A. N. Yakovlev. Andrey's list of titles as an "anti-perpetuity manifesto" and confirmed the course for perestroika.
Political reform.
At the try to change the initiative, Gorbachev at the red 1988. calling the party conference. The conference praised the propositions for the democratization of the political institutions of the Radyansk Union and its irreversible character. From Zhovtni, the Verkhovna Rada took Gorbachev the head of the state.
Autumn 1988 Gorbachev activated peaceful initiatives of the Radyansk Union for a wide range of international problems.
Choose a coup.
March 26, 1989 the election of delegates to the First Three People's Deputies was held. The campaign called for great interest among the population, and it was marked by warm discussions. In the Baltic republics, the people's fronts won the victory. Yeltsin was elected a member of the Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR (there were no more votes; the place at the Verkhovna Rada Yeltsin was given up by Oleksiy Kazannik), although in Moscow he won more votes.
Against this background in the country, the growth of nationalism was observed and numerical differences were observed in Kyrgyzstan (Osh), Uzbekistan (Fergana), Georgia, Nagirny Karabakh, the Baltic states and others.
For example, in the spring of 1989, Abkhazia announced the departure from the warehouse of Georgia. In Tbilisi, informal organizations started a lot of unsanctioned protest actions. At the quarter, the political situation sharply flared up, the rally took on an anti-Radian directive, and began to hang about the departure of Georgia from the warehouse of the SRSR. April 8, 1989 The Criminal Code was supplemented by a new article 11.1 pro criminal liability for public calls to the fall of the chi change the radian sovereign order. Ale process bulo no longer zupiniti. On April 9, the Ministry of Defense of the SRSR dispersed the demonstrators by stoking the gas and sapper blades; in the end, close to 20 people perished.
At the meeting of the Central Committee of the party on April 25, Gorbachev was elected until the month of happiness in the autumn of 1989 on the cob of 1990, so that the apparatus did not hit a new blow.
I z'izd of people's deputies buv cliques for example on May 1989. Vіn forming a new Verkhovna Rada and hardening Gorbachev's head. The radical reformers won political victory in the west: article 11.1 was denounced; a commission was created to investigate the cases of Tbilisi, and some prominent conservatives were called in corruption. The discussions, which were three days a week, were broadcast live on TV and nailed the respect of the entire country.
At one time, over 300 delegates to the Z'izd of People's Deputies formed an opposition bloc, the names of the Interregional Deputy Group. This group, which included Yeltsin and Sakharov to the core, was shaping the platform, de bule able to carry out political and economic reforms, secure the freedom of others and the dissolution of the communist party.
In the fall of 1989 hundreds of thousands of miners near Kuzbass and Donbass started a strike, despite the advance salary; Having succumbed to the threat of a wild strike, Gorbachev waited for the help of the miners. The stinks turned to work, but saved their strike committees.
Domestic politics, especially the economy, showed signs of a serious crisis. Zrіs shortage of food and goods of everyday drinking. Since 1989, the process of disintegration of the political system of the Radian Union was in full swing.
As a result of the elections at the fierce-birch of 1990, coalitions of radical democrats came to power in Moscow and Leningrad. Yeltsin was taken as the head of the Supreme Council for the sake of the RRFSR.
Until 1990, the economy was going through a serious recession. Economic and political autonomy grew from the side of the republic and weakened power to the center. The release of life of important types of products has changed, the harvest of new collections with great expenses; wine deficit navit such goods of everyday drinking, like bread and cigarettes.
Gorbachev could not fix these problems. Fierce 1990 p. the communist party was driven by a monopoly on power. At the birch, the Verkhovna Rada introduced changes to the constitution, introducing the presidency, and then elected Gorbachev the president of the SRSR for a five-year term. Lipneviy 28th star of the CPRS went through the discussions, but did not praise the serious program of reforms. Gorbachev, who is exercising real power, starting to rattle the population more and more with endless empty talks about staying on the aphids of the economy, which is rapidly falling apart, and the allied power. Yeltsin and other members of the opposition defiantly left the party behind.
On the cob 1991 without prior notice, new banknotes of 50 and 100 rubles were introduced into circulation, in order to replace old banknotes, prices in state-owned stores were increased. Tsі come in pіdіrvali the rest of the populace to the state.
In the referendum on the 17th anniversary of the savings of the SRSR, 76% of the votes were cast. The representatives of the Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Georgian, Vrmenian and Moldavian councils held a national referendum on exit from the Union.
Cherry Russian Federation Bulo held direct presidential elections, which will win over Yeltsin. Until the end of Chernya Gorbachev, the presidents of nine republics, de bulo held a global union referendum, developed a draft union treaty, which transferred the transfer of a large part of the renovation to the republics. The official signing of the contract was recognized on 20 April 1991.
On September 19, Gorbachev, who had changed at Krimu, was placed under house arrest at his residence near Faros. The vice-president, prime minister, minister of internal affairs, army officers and the KDB and other party and state officials announced that the state committee from the super-state camp (DKNS) would be promoted through Gorbachev's "ailment".
The population of the capital supported Yeltsin, the deacons raised the army and the KDB also switched to yoga. On the third day, the coup, having declared collapse, and the leaders were arrested.
After the collapse of the coup, Yeltsin issued a decree on the dissolution of the communist party, the confiscation of power and the transfer of the main state functions from Russia to the hands of the president. Having succumbed to the coup, most of the presidents of the other republics raised their own voices and voted about their departure from the Union.
Autumn 1991 rest period History of the Radyansk Union. Virobnitstvo was practically paralyzed, and the republican parties and the ranks broke up into factions, although there are no small squabbling political and economic programs. Interethnic conflicts began. The craftsmanship of the country has spent all the important care of the country. The Radian Union ceased to function on December 8, 1991.
At the plantation of Secretary General M. S. Gorbachev, he gave great respect to the old politics of the SRSR. Not vipadkovo yogo authority on Zahodі dosit high and dosi. In the midst of the successes that have been reached by the current politics, we should say before us about the collapse of the “flying dependence”, the cold winter and the end of the nuclear defense.
In 1985-1988, Gorbachev made radical changes to the current political course of the USSR. On the XXVII z'їzdі CPRS (lyutium - birch 1986) the public program of the radian people to encourage a nuclear-free world until the year 2000. At the same time, it is time for a visit to India, having signed the Delhi Declaration on the principles of non-violent and free nuclear war.
In early 1985, the fate of the celebration of the 40th anniversary of the victory over fascism, Gorbachev was uper for 20 years, guessing in a positive context the name of Josip Stalin, which called out the roaring applause of the present. At the first (closed) meeting with the creative intelligentsia, saying that it’s not an hour at once to promote the anti-Stalinist campaign: “We are the people with foreheads!”
From the fall of the leaves of 1985 to March 1988, the fate of 5 Zustriches Gorbachev with the President of the United States Ronald Reagan, at the time of which it was wrought to please the speed of some kinds of nuclear and savage fires.
For example, during the meeting between MS Gorbachov and US President Ronald Reagan at the fall of the leaves in 1985, the parties recognized the need for a plethora of radio-American payments and the improvement of the international situation in the wild. Contracts SNO-1,2 have been laid. By a declaration on September 15, 1986, the fate of M. S. Gorbachev, hanging low on the great political initiatives:
1. Removal of nuclear and chemical weapons until the year 2000.
2. Suvoriy control in case of saving nuclear weapons and decommissioning at the sites of liquidation
On the eve of the visit of Mikhail Sergiyovich to India, the Delhi Declaration was signed on the principles of a free nuclear attack and a non-violent world.
In addition, M. S. Gorbachov himself should have the main merit in the end of the war in Afghanistan and in the right resurrection of Nimechchini.
The end of the war in Afghanistan
The new construction of the country on the island of Gorbachev saw the full pardon - the introduction of the military to Afghanistan. Gorbachev explained that the war did not give the Radyansk Union anything, the crime of "zinc pipes" that light condemnation.
Vlitka born in 1987 it was crushed first, wanting, more importantly, populist crumbs to light. The new pro-Radyansky detachment on the choli with Najibulla, propagating the opposing side of the truce.
Have kvіtni 1988 The SRSR signed at Geneva the favor of the withdrawal of their troops from Afghanistan. As early as 15 May, the first Viysk pidrozdili began to overrun the country.
February 15, 1989 Afghanistan was taken over by the rest of the Radian soldiers. This ceremony was held by a yakomoga urochist, having shown, by themselves, that the SRSR does not run out of the country, but rather sees the stars of its own army.
On the 15th of the fierce, ten years of the end of the departure of the Radian troops from Afghanistan are celebrated. That day for the Radyansky Union ended the worst of the war in the history of the war, like nine years, one month and eighteen days. Through the war passed 525 thousand soldiers and officers of the Radian army, 90 thousand military servicemen to the state security committee and 5 thousand military servicemen and military servicemen of the MVS. 14,453 soldiers and officers perished in the Afghan war, including 13,833 servicemen of the Ministry of Defense, 572 - KDB and 28 - MVS. The number of sanitary expenses (wounded, shell-shocked, ill) is numbly high - 469685 people. Vtrati vіyskovoy tehnіkі not less vrazhayut: lіtakіv - 118, helicopters - 333, tanks - 147, infantry fighting vehicles, infantry fighting vehicles, armored personnel carriers - 1314, vehicles of various rank - about 13 thousand.
To understand the significance of the vision of the Radian troops from Afghanistan, look ahead. The SRSR had more folded relations with China, which reached military conflicts, pulled together with Iran. The security official sang dodatkovu gostroty through the USA in the region. The New York Times newspaper wrote on 11 March 1971 that "the main point of Nixon's doctrine is to save political and military arrogance until the right of Asia ... waging the war with the hands of others, helping with it ... That Washington continues to help and give help Pakistan." In this manner, until the beginning of the 1970s, on the front lines of the country only from Afghanistan, we had, like before, friendly stosunki. Ale and in this country were brewing downs, like nevdovzі caused far-reaching beyond the borders of the country of heritage.
On April 17, 1973, there was a military coup in Afghanistan, after which King M. Zahir Shah was thrown off.
A republic was voted in the country, on the basis of which M. Daoud became the prime minister and a member of the royal homeland. It should be noted that the Radian fakhivtsy from Afghanistan did not give due respect. Change the power in us with a typical "shidny episode". Prote for tsim quilted di sing forces like the middle edge, so for її boundaries. In the middle of the country at that time, the wine and having begun to quickly gain strength, the national-democratic movement and the suspile-political transition - the Islamic fundamentalist movement.
During this period, the United States significantly expanded its penetration into the country. The American publicist F. Bonosky, in the book "Washington's Secret War against Afghanistan," pointed out that in 1973 the CIA "began to push" the Afghan squad with the method of zmusiti yoga to take anti-radian positions. In the anti-Uriad movement, the headquarters fought against us in front of the military section of "Muslim youth". After the opening of the 1973 fate of the militants against the regime of M. Daoud, the participants knew the shelter of Pakistan. At the secret Pakistani encampments, the training of five thousand Afghan fundamentalists was organized, and they became the core of the anti-society forces in the middle of Afghanistan. At the end of 1975, the adherents of G. Hekmatyar, B. Rabban and other Muslim organizations voiced jihad against the “godless regime” of M. Daud. At the bottom of the provinces, the slaughterhouses were stabbed to death. However, they didn’t get far from the rebellion in the whole country. In this way, the thought that only the last (1978) revolution in Afghanistan became the cause of the mass war of the masses is not confirmed.
The last military coup of 1978 happened in Kabul, when President M. Daud was shot dead, and power in the country passed into the hands of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan on the side of M. Taraki, showing a complete lack of support for the radian kerivnits. The destruction of the Panuval and Washington. On the smoldering grounds in Iran, the CIA did not attach enough respect to Afghanistan and looked at the coup that was being prepared. On April 30, 1978, Moscow recognized the new regime near Kabul. The recognition was true both for ideological and historical traditions. The Radyansk Union felt like a mother on the pivden cordon of hearing, as if not an ally, then wanting a good suid. Prote the first river of the development of the summer revolution in Afghanistan, showing the vigor of the social base.
A further development of the future in this country has shown that the natives of the revolution did not have a clear program of political and economic transformations, they did not have a little practical evidence of sovereign everyday life. The ambitions of the okremikh kerіvniki no longer sufficed the inter-party fortune teller, and the socialist fading intensified the struggle of the Muslim fundamentalists against the new government. At the birch tree of 1979, the fate of the counter-revolutionary stabbed to death near the province of Herat. More often zbroyni essences in other provinces of the country. Washington at the link with the second Iran praises the decision about the reorientation of the foreign policy in the other region, trying to maximize the primacy of the Afghan forces from the fight against the SRSR. We are getting more help to Pakistan, we are getting closer to China. America is guided by the homeliness of the Nearest Descent and accepts the talks of the Indian Ocean. As soon as they went near Herat (before the speech, then two radyansky hulks were stabbed to death for an hour), the detachment of Afghanistan began to systematically hunt down the shacks until the order of the SRSR about the help of the army. There were about two dozen such prohans from birch to chest 1979. The present city of Radianske ceramics repeatedly looked at the Afghan order and, regardless of the complexity of the situation near and in the middle of the country, always inspired their satisfaction. Tim for an hour became right in Afghanistan without interruption. The evil opposition squeezed its hoop near Kabul, where the struggle between the leaders of the PDPA sharply flared up until midnight.
At the spring of 1979, M. Taraki was driven into the fate of the inter-party chvars. At the yellow-leaf fall of 1979, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union regularly discussed the problems of Afghanistan. Most officials of the KDB and the Ministry of Defense regularly travel between Kabul and Moscow. Nareshti, December 12, 1979 in the office of L.I. Brezhnev is again elected by the Politburo for information of the head of the KDB Yu. V. Andropova, Minister of Defense D. F. Ustinova and Minister of Foreign Affairs A. A. foreign aggression... and escaping from sleepiness interests of both sides in food safety". Today you can allow, what is the solution,
first, dictated by the handing over of the imperialist lands to the right of Afghanistan, that could create a threat to the security of our industrial borders;
in a different way, it is not enough to save the formation of the terrorist regime of H. Amin and protect the Afghan people from genocide;
thirdly, it protected those who had previously managed without important domestic and international heritage in other lands (Ugorshchyna, Czechoslovakia).
Природно, у політичному рішенні щодо застосування військової сили була опора на міжнародне право - міждержавний договір, укладений між СРСР та Афганістаном 5 грудня 1978 року, де вказувалося, що "в інтересах зміцнення обороноздатності Високих Договірних Сторін вони продовжуватимуть співпрацювати у військовій галузі".
I think that there is one aspect in the fateful decision, which, having been taken from the roki, so the titles of leaderism, so that there is no need for the reinstatement of the general secretary, the decision did not need to be discussed. Obviously, the very way of praising such a fatal decision, completely ignoring the thoughts of analysts-professionals, a huge thought, nareshti, radian legislation, can’t vouch for anything, let’s sue. Ale tse mi at once can be so mirkuvat. And then, in 1979, we had few people in the country, as if they could publicly declare a different (like the Politburo) position. In whose plan I will bring two butts. It is certain that the General Staff of the Ministry of Defense of the SRSR was categorically against the introduction of military forces to Afghanistan. Ale, what happened to that? Army General A.M. Afghanistan, having spoken out loudly against it, declaring: "We certainly oppose to ourselves all similar Islamism, and politically program in the whole world." Let's get busy with politics, party, Leonid Illich." vіysk vіysk, іnі іnhim іnhim needed to shout, scho vіdbuvaє pardon, bad, s grievous inherited. Then I don’t know my own strength, dare to say about it. Well, I have spoken dozens of times at plenums, party stars. I can’t work myself, maybe, my other thoughts are the same thoughts. It was necessary to tell the truth, so that they would suffer, naturally. Well, what - people died in Afghanistan. It was necessary to speak, I know, to torment my conscience.
The history of the military invasion of Afghanistan from Afghanistan is one of the most powerful confirmations of the chibnost adopted from the baby in 1979 by the great stone of the SRSR decision about the military invasion to the country. This is the proof that you can spread the war, but it’s important to finish it. I already guessed that the General Staff of the Ministry of Defense was against the introduction of the military to Afghanistan. The motives of the General Staff were even more conflicting: internal conflicts Afghan cores were guilty of viciously independently; the introduction of the military threatens the fall of authority in the eyes of the radiant people, the people of Afghanistan and that svetovoy hugeness; it’s quite impressive that the presence of radyans’ka military presence in this country provokes the rise of combat actions; weak knowledge of the sounds and traditions of the Afghan people, the peculiarities of Islam, national-ethnic and tribal tribes, to put radyansky soldiers at the camp camp. Literally a few months after the introduction of the Radian military to Afghanistan, the forecast of the General Staff began to turn out to be true. The Afghans themselves spoke about the wrong decision of the Radianian order. The head military guard in Afghanistan from 1980 to 1981, General of the Army A. M. Mayorov, spoke about the discussion with Colonel-General Hussein, the father of B. Karmal, the head of the Afghan state. To A. M. Mayorov’s assertion: “Everything is possible early, we can overcome it,” the Afghan general vіdpovіv: “Hi, Afghanistan cannot be overcome. Afghanistan can only be bought. ." In the same hour, at the same time, the commander of the corps of the Afghan army, Colonel Khalil, was hanged at the rose of A.M. Colonel Khalil, for example, stating: "Vіyska shurava needs to be brought from Afghanistan... There will be no help. Bring on for ten, fifteen and twenty holy Ramadans."
In 1980, academician R. A. Arbatov and political observer of the newspaper Pravda Yu. A. Zhukov solicited admission to L. I. Brezhnev and made a proposition about the private visitation of the fringed contingent of the Radian troops from Afghanistan. On the eve of the party, on March 22, at a party in the Kremlin under the head of Yu.V. There was no reaction to this proposition. In the early autumn of 1981, the Politburo praised the proposition of the Minister of Foreign Affairs A. A. Gromiko for organizing a diplomatic process, a method of bringing the radian wars out of Afghanistan. Tsya constructive position of Radyansk ceramics was marked by the UN. Naprikintsі 1982 to the fate of the hour of the funeral of L. I. Brezhnev Yu. V. Andropov is the new leader of the party of that power, having met with the President of Pakistan, Zia Ul-Khan. The Afghan problem was destroyed in the course of the Zustrichi. On March 28, 1983, Yu. V. Andropov, at the meeting of the Secretary General of the United Nations, chanted a banquet about the peace of Afghan food. However, the efforts of the American administration to take the maximum of political benefits from the Afghan conflict and to involve the GKV in the fighting forces have made it easier for the UN to mediate the mission. After the death of Yu.V. In parallel with the CIM, the Afghan opposition of the United States began to grow sharply.
Moreover, the CIA began to stubbornly push the Mujahideen to raids on the territory of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and so they tried it. Prote zavdyaki stepwise lowering the threshold of confrontation in the Radian-American wars in 1985-1986. light shone in the Afghan deaf hut. In the autumn of 1985, M. Z. Gorbachov told B. Karmal and other Afghan scholars about the news of the Radyansk Viysk to the fate of Moscow. Indeed, at the same time in 1986, six combat units appeared in Afghanistan for the resolution of the Radyansk order from Afghanistan: one tank regiment, two motorized rifle regiments and three anti-aircraft guns with a total number of 8.5 thousand firearms. Time for the process of Geneva talks under the auspices of the UN for Afghan food, even in 1982, though with great difficulties, in 1985-1986. And, finally, ending on April 14, 1988, a package of favors was signed by the most important representatives of Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as the SRSR and the United States, as a guarantee of the implementation of the policy on regulating the Afghan conflict.
On January 15, 1988, the fate of the tsikh favors rose gradually to the exodus of the Radian military forces from Afghanistan. On February 15, 1989, as it was marked by Zhenev's favors, the rest of the radians were born in Afghanistan with General B.V. Gromov.
Association of Nimechchini
On spring 12, 1990, in the Moscow "President Hotel" the ministers of foreign affairs of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain, France, the FRN and the NDR, in the presence of the President of the USSR MS Gorbachov, signed the Agreement on the residual regulation of Nimechchini. Twenty days later, on July 3, 1990, the date of the meeting of Nimechchini became a fact that happened. At Berlin, the banner of the NDR was lowered, the German Democratic Republic ceased to function.
The originality of the coming of the 12th of spring was supposed to be like that, which formally "curved" the German food. The international atmosphere was overwhelmed by the beatings of gigantic transformations, which were destined to shake the world at the onset of fate. Fifteen months later, the Radian Union ceased to exist, having split into republics, which they established. Earlier, contact the Organization of the Warsaw Pact and the Rada of Economic Assistance. How many allies behind the Warsaw Pact tell their drift from NATO. Europe has a new spіvvіdnoshennia forces with still obscure and importantly transferring traces.
The famous military history of Europe, a significant world, was formed under the influx of podia, which roared like German food. The blame for the cold war, the split of Europe, the battlefield opposition of two military-political blocs - NATO and the Allied Armed Forces with border crossings, which accompanied yoga - all the same, so what else was caused by the attempt to reach the military regulation in Nimechchyna.
Many of the allies in the Other World War did not in any way go into the possibility of approving the decision of Nimechchini, realizing the principle of the regulation scheme, scheduled for 1945 at Potsdam. Over that far rozіyshlis їhnі іnteresi, natto profoundly appeared rіv mіzh Descent and Sunset, over that ambitious - the ambitions of political kerіvnikіv provіdnyh powers.
The evils of the Germans are rightfully recognized as their greatest achievement. They realized the chance that history had given them. Chancellor G. Kohl called the unification of the country a "gift of history". Vіn miraculously rozumіv, scho in іnshіy іstorіchnіy situatsії "gift" moment and not buti. In every case, like in 1989, the fate of the middle political elite of the FRN was broadened the idea that the unification of Nimechchini is on the right of a distant historical perspective. The FRN seriously put before M. Z. Gorbachov's appointment with the President of the FRN von Weizsäcker at the 1987 fate in Moscow for the first hour of the visit of the Radyansky kerіvnik to the FRN at the 1989 roku, stating that the food will revive the day. No one, movlyav, can say what will become for 100 years. Von Weizsäcker bov zbentezheny such vіdpovіddu. At that very hour R.-D. Genscher to say that he wins at the words of M. Z. Gorbachev, it’s more - readiness to respect the German food, and the camp of the split is not residual. Vіn mav ration. If you become a fact only through the river of resurrection, MS Gorbachev will not hang the prize. Nothing could be clear in a moment that history is more often so quickly pratsyuvat, say wine.
It seems that there were few people in Zakhodі in 1989, and more in the Radyansk Union, having taken into account the real rise of Nіmechchini in the future. The reach of German unity was seen by Bonn and allies as a strategic task. Not more than that. It's true, Ege. A. Shevardnadze in his memoirs, which happened in 1991, zaznachiva hiba but in hindsight, but in 1986 the fate of the world thought about the inevitability of the national solidarity of the Nazis. However, publicly continuing to announce the official point of view of Radyansk's curiosity about the irreversibility of changes in the German land and the immutability of the foundation of two German powers.
However, a huge movement for democratization, political pluralism and economic liberalization, which broke out in the similar European lands, hoarded and NDR, added there until the autumn of 1989 a rock in the land of hospitality, a vibratory character.
"Perebudovna" whimpering, having spread to the NDR, did soon develop a particularly German directness. Rukh, which began under the fading of "the people - tse mi", already in a short hour gave rise to a new fading - "we are the united people." Zagalnіmetsky motive becoming dominant. Vimoga freedom from the PDR, the cordon between the NDR and the FRN has not lost its declarative nature. Hundreds of citizens of the NDR, skeptical of the possibility of visa-free travel to Czechoslovakia, Ugorshchina and other powers, began to take in the tax of the FRN embassy, implying a trip to Zahid. Obviously, please, between the NDR and these powers, they did not allow them to allow visa-free travel of the people of the NDR to the FRN. The situation flared up.
The FRN detachment zhorstko embossed on Budapest, Prague and Berlin, vimagayuchi allow the departure of foreign tourists to Zakhid. At the end, money was sent for economic assistance, great credits. On the perfect day of 1989, at the castle of Gimnikh under Bonn, a secret message from Chancellor R. Kolya and the head of the Ugric order, M. Nemeth, was made. Ugorshchina gave a year for the travel of tourists from the NDR to the FRN and without a hitch opened its own cordon, otrimavshi signal from Moscow about those who radianske kerіvnitstvo is not comparable to the departure of the people of the NDR to Zahid. Zgodom G. Kohl rozpovist, scho vіn mav on this topic telephone on Rozmov with M. S. Gorbachov, for the glory of such a wine and the growth of visnovok, which the Ugrian people did for the good of Moscow. Vіn takozh dіyshov vysnovku, scho all tі podії were "on the cob of the end of the SEPN regime".
Unexpectedly, a detachment of the NDR gave an opportunity to see the bulk of the people, they went to the embassies of the FRN near Praz, at special trains for the mind, that the stench would go straight through the territory of the NDR. Prote in the regulation of the conflict with the "ambassadors" could no longer stream the further worsened political situation in the PDR. Vaughn outgrew the crisis of sovereignty. At Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden and other places, thousands of demonstrations were not held up due to cardinal changes in the country. The NDR was wailing the rally, like other similar European lands, changing regimes, yak appeared to be late and effectively shaking their lands. The encampment and the introduction of E. Honecker did not turn up at the same time in 1989, just after the holy 40th anniversary of the PDR. Present at the urochisty, MS Gorbachov flooded Berlin with gloomy hostility. A conversation with a NDR ceremonial confirmed the unacceptability of the remaining guest until the recommendation. That hour was wasted. The Radian leader had more than enough support for important thoughts. In the meantime, M. S. Gorbachev probably let it go, that the hour is not far off, if you write about your power of fate, if you want to wake up in a logical language, you could already transfer the inevitability of bitter heritage.
The new construction of the NDR on the grounds of E. Krenz stubbornly rubbed the ground under his feet, did not know in this complicated situation effective solutions to the political crisis, which was saved. It was clear that the use of forceful methods was contraindicated and could lead to even more controversy, hanging out in a different situation. From Moscow, it was clearly understood that the stationing of the NDR on the territory of the NDR, the Ryansk troops should be left in the barracks and the NDR's ceramics could not be rented for their support.
G.-D. Gensher zgadu rozmovu with Ugric stoneworkers at the hour of zustrichi near Bonn at the sickle of 1989. The stench rose, that on the agenda of the heads of powers - members of the Organization of the Warsaw Pact in Bucharest, they were asked to include provisions about the right of a skin power-member to independently revise nutrition about their social and political devices. Tsya proposition of the back of the head did not know the praise and only the easygoing supporter of M. S. Gorbachov secured yoga acceptance. G.-D. Genscher zrobiv z thogo vysnovok, scho kerіvnik Radyansk Union firmly stand on the positions of the Spіlnoї declaration SRSR - FRN, signed in the course of his visit to Bonn in 1989 year, debulo was fixed similarly for the smyst camp. Otzhe, vіn i nadalі pіdtrimuvatime pragnennya powers-members in the Organization of the Warsaw Pact to greater independence. Tse encouraged the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the FRN. I wine did not have mercy on his eyes. The organization of the Warsaw Pact was rapidly collapsing to self-dissolution.
Tim soon approached the NDR took a dramatic turn. Permanent demonstrations, hard pressure from the side of the opposition irritated the NDR's speech about the fall of the 9th leaf fall of 1989 about the "revealing" of the Berlin Moor. Control was taken at the cordon crossings, and thousands of residents of Skhidny Berlin were straightened to the western part of the city, and the western stream of the western Berliners was straightened to the east.
The order of the FRN saw that, as a rozpochati real krokiv on the unification of the two German powers, it is necessary to develop sumniv and fight against the camp of their allies, the social and Radian Union. If there were allies, then in Bonn they were convinced that they could win the task. With the Radyansk Union it was more foldable, without respect for mutual understanding, which was folded up to the first hour, with MS Gorbachov and EA Shevardnadze.
Against such an internal political background, which was formed in the SRSR until the beginning of 1990, it was not only to demonstrate strong, but to reconsider that effective old policy. For the sake of saving the high international authority of the Radyansky Union, which zmushuvav partners to call on yoga thought in the case of European and world problems.
At the beginning of discussions about the ways of solving the problem of German unity on the cob of 1990, radianism turned to chancellor G. Kolya with help about the terms of food. Zrozumіlo, the FRN squad looked positively and promptly. Already on September 24, G. Kohl confirmed the readiness to deliver to the SRSR for a light price of 52 thousand. tons of canned meat, 5 thousand. tons of pork, 20 thousand. tons of butter and other foodstuffs, having seen 220 million Germans for subsidizing these deliveries. At the same time, there was not a single military search of the SRSR for food assistance to the FRN and other western lands. Nezabara came new prohannya of this kind, as well as the reversal of new loans. Dopomoga zobov'yazuvala, put kerіvnitstvo SRSR more foldable camp in the negotiations with the FRN.
In the meantime, Moscow has been developing positions, strategies and tactics of future diplomatic contacts from the power of the Nimechchini association. The work went very well, the assessments and thoughts were great. Promoted kerіvnitstvu recommendations ekspertіv often otrimuvali there vlasnu іnterpretatsіyu, and for the implementation nabula even far from the original conceived character.
10 fierce G. Kohl at the escort of G.-D. Genscher arrives to Moscow. The chancellor was resolutely getting ready for the price to rise. Ahead of the visit, representatives of the United States, Great Britain and France made statements to support the united policy of Bonn. For the unification of the Nimechchini, new ceramics of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Ugorshchyna, Romania and Bulgaria hung out.
G. Kolya and G.-D. Still, Genscher was not overwhelmed by anxiety and restlessness. They knew that at the plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, that before their visit, the policy of M. S. Gorbachov and E. A. Shevardnadze was sharply criticized from the side of many members of the Central Committee. The inner camp of the SRSR continued to go out of business. If you want and if you can, M. S. Gorbachev under the pressure of putting pressure on the actions of the FRN - the chain of food did not deprive the core workers of the FRN.
Negotiations in Moscow gathered, for the knowledge of the German participants, richly friendly, lower stench was cleared up. M. S. Gorbachov, having made a statement in the wake of a narrow warehouse, like G. Kohl, having taken it as a sensation. The side of the newspaper Pravda, on the coming day, the statement of the Radian leader, the assistant to the chancellor Kh.
What made the German guests so happy? The TARS announcement, published by Pravda on February 11, 1990, said:
M. S. Gorbachov, stating - and the chancellor waited a while with him - that at the same time between the SRSR, the FRN and the PDR there are no differences because of the fact that food about the unity of the German nation may be virishuvati themselves and on some minds the stink of unity is realizable”.
Sensing my statement, the chancellor did not hesitate for a moment, even the Germans actually took carte blanche and complete freedom of hands in internal negotiations. A check for the German guest and another welcome surprise. If G. Kohl spoke about the military status of the united Nimechchina, MS Gorbachev was very reluctant. In understanding, for Kolya neutrality is so unacceptable, as for others. Neutrality to put between, as if to belittle the German people. M. S. Gorbachev does not know what the status of the united Nazi Germany will be, he will have to think more about it and "program" different possibilities. The Chancellor's assistant H. Telchik wrote to his student: "One more sensation: M. S. Gorbachev does not commit himself to residual decisions; the daily drinks are free of charge, and I am not threatened. What a joke!".
The talk gave one more result - M. S. Gorbachev praised J. Baker's proposition about holding negotiations about the most important aspects of German unity in the "2 + 4" format. Vіn pogodivsya with the chancellor, scho qі pitanya may virіshuvatsya chotirma powers jointly with FRN and NDR.
The next day, on the 12th of February, the first conference of the ministers of foreign rights of the NATO powers and the Warsaw Treaty Organization was held in Ottawa. Vaughn was attributed to the problem of the "clear sky", to the arrivals of how to get it right at the Viysk galuzi. Prote in history won out for some other reason. G.-D. Genscher, having put himself on the agenda at this conference, sought formal agreement on the beginning of negotiations in the "2 + 4" format. J. Baker actively encouraged yoga. The ministers of foreign affairs of Great Britain and France did not quarrel. E. A. Shevardnadze was not prepared to such a rapid pace of negotiations, but rather allowed six ministers to publish a joint statement about the beginning of negotiations to discuss "the most important aspects of achieving German unity, including food security for the state powers."
Increasingly becoming more and more aware of the time pressure, which the participants in the negotiations set for themselves, giving in to the easy-going aspirations of the FRN order to complete them before the autumn of 1990. On the 31st day, the signing of the Agreement on the merger of the FRN and the NDR was recognized, on the 12th of September - the Agreement on the residual regulation of the city of Nimechchini, on the 3rd of July it was recognized as a tract in Berlin from the day of the association of Nimechchini, on the 20th leaf fall - for 2 breasts - choose to the Bundestag FRN. Chancellor G. Kohl, having forgotten that, the elections were already held in the unification of Nimechchyna. This would give you unparalleled superiority over social democratic competitors.
The situation is escalating from day to day. At the participants in the negotiations, they pressed the vins of the obov'yazok obov'yazkovo to finish the work to the set term. Uzgodzhuvati in the minds of an agreement formula meant to risk imminent errors, the appearance of fuzzy, approximate texts. Adzhe were left with more than a few key provisions of the bag document "shitki".
On the evening of 14 pm, Chancellor of the FRN G. Kohl and the Minister of Foreign Affairs G.-D. Genscher and finance T. Weigel with the accompanying delegation of German experts. The next day in the mansion of the MZS SRSR on the street. Oleksiy Tolstoy (Ninі Spiridonіvka) began negotiations, as if they were putting all the specks in the food about the status of the united Nіmechchini and її Vіdnosini with the Radyansk Union. M. S. Gorbachov's two-year-old speaker and G. Kohl were translating the presence of only assistants and translators. Vaughn, as if, by all means, and the whole trip, was reportedly described in the words of the chancellor, yogi assistant H. Telchik and other German participants. A German selection of documents published the record of the move itself.
The quintessence of the conversation was actually the year of the Radianian president about those that the FRN after the union was left out of NATO. The formula propagated by him was that for a transitional period, while the territory of the PDR is not included in the sphere of NATO, until the German land is occupied by radian troops.
The first part of the President's statement was inspired by G. Kolya. Vіn spriynyav feel like "break through". A part of the other part called out in a new alertness. Winning at the words of the svіvrozmovnik is a sign of the fact that the united Nіmechchina is still not going to gain full sovereignty, but in the course of the upcoming negotiations about the minds of the radian troops of the SRSR, you can save in your hands the ability to press and feed on the membership of Nіmechchini in NATO. The Chancellor wanted more clarity, and he boldly asked M. S. Gorbachov. Vіdpovіd vin otrimav less indirect. The President said that he was in charge of a successful flight to the Caucasus. At the gіrsky povіtrі rich, movlyav, squint clearer.
Mr. Kolya was not satisfied with such an unimaginable prospect. Vіn prodovzhuvav napolyagati and declaring that it is less likely to fly on a pіvday in that case, as a result of the rozms of Nіmechchina takes away the sovereignty. The guest's arrogance mingled with unceremoniousness and clearly overwhelmed the president. I didn’t even give a straight line, but instead urged me to fly to the Caucasus. Mr. Kolya became aware that the year would be taken away. On the same day, offending delegations flew to Stavropol.
V. M. Falin, having occupied the office of the head of the international office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at that hour, noted that at night ahead of the arrival of G. Kolya, he phoned M. S. Gorbachev and announced his future negotiations, especially attacking those the president did not give a chance to join the union of Germany to NATO. M. S. Gorbachev vіdpovіv, scho zamagatimetsya zrobiti, scho you can, ale, on yoga thought, "poїzd already pіshov".
Visnannya President talk a lot about what. At the time of the announcement in Archiz, the result of the negotiations was in fact no doubt in advance. The internal situation in the Soviet Socialist Republic, the camp in the NDR and the other powers of Northern Europe, the harsh pressure from the side of the foreign partners left the Radianska sovereign stonework in the region with a set of koshtiv and options. Adopting the rules of the gri, which are dictated by the policy of the "new idea", acting in the light of the most difficult times, the buildings and the least aggravated situation and criticism of their address beyond the cordon, the SRSR workers sounded more loudly the political corridor of their actions. Potik podіy nіs їх mustache with more swidkіst, and in them there were less chances, and perhaps, the bazhannya vibratisya z new. Until the end of 1991, when the ensign of the Radyansky Union was lowered in the Kremlin, and M. S. Gorbachev, having made himself the president of a still mighty power, was left with a second fate. However, on all the events of the greater curvature of the country, already lying on the other hand, it seems that there are feelings and instilling prejudice.
Prote in Arkhizі z low nutrition negotiated trivali dosit strained. M. Z. Gorbachov made a residual and clear confirmation of the important position of the SRSR in the future regulation. Zocrema, it was about those that foreign military NATO will not be deployed on the territory of the vast NDR and there will not be deployed nuclear weapons and delivery capabilities. The chancellor waited a while іz tsim. The President, having attacked the short-term numerical strength of the Bundeswehr and taking away G. Kohl's year, "stele" from 370 yew. osіb (in the event of significant events, the chancellor was categorically reprimanded). Ring of the Chancellor, the Ninmechni is not at one time to pay Vitrati to the reassignment of the zakhayny serepy (ZGV) on the Nimeskiy Teritori (Shc Rera, last Chotirokh, and not P'yati Rocky, NIZH TAKED) military servicemen of the Western Group of Forces.
All the same, it’s not enough to spend the year on the membership of the united Germany in NATO and on the placement in the many NDR parts of the Bundeswehr that are not integrated to NATO immediately after the union.
Zustrich in Arkhizi practically opened the way until the completion of the negotiations of the “Shistka”. So there and bula was taken everywhere. Particularly intense results of the sound called out at the political stakes of Nymechchini, turning the hope on the joint of the border into a firm allegiance.
On the next day, on the 17th lime, at Paris, the third zustrich of the ministers of foreign affairs "shistki" was heard. E. A. Shevardnadze and G.-D. Genscher arrived to the French capital directly from Mineralnye Vody under hostile negotiations, which only ended. Reached in the Arkhiz of homeliness marked the break of the parizkoy zustrіch. Spechatisya actually Bulo vzhe mute about scho. The work on the sub-bag document "shistka" quickly collapsed to completion. The German participants decided to reconsider that everything will end in lines, before 3 days, and the set goals will be reached. At Paris, it was a little later and a notice about the signing of the German-Polish agreement on the cordon, which was no longer valid, which is guilty on a bilateral basis of the provision on the residual nature of the German cordon, which was "short" for the Treaty on the residual regulation of the city of Nimechchini. For this meeting, the Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs K. Skubishevsky was requested.
E. A. Shevardnadze’s quick step in the negotiations motivated him that significant progress was achieved within the framework of the NBSU, as well as in the process of transformation of the Allied Forces and NATO. Tsey visnovok vyyavivsya correct only for the Organization of the Warsaw Pact, the participants of which practically already stood on the threshold of self-dissolution, which in fact became the finale of the "transformation". As far as NATO, then after the declaration about us, voted in London, concretely, they began to express their opinion directly. NATO not only saved all the main characteristics of the military-political bloc, but also "transformed" for the sake of recruiting new members and pushing its sphere into the crossroads of Europe. In the spring of 1990, the fate of the possibility of such an expansion of NATO did not dare to push. Moreover, there were warnings that NATO structures cannot be put between the FRN and the PDR. Zagalom through a sprat of rokiv about qi zapevnennya was forgotten.
The results of the "sixty" negotiations allowed confirming the date of their completion and signing of the Agreement on residual regulation - 12 April near Moscow. On the level of the experts, there was a residual revision of the text of the contract. At the same time, preparations were made for the Radian-Nimets Treaty on goodwill, partnership and reconciliation, as it was agreed to parafuvat the same day - April 12, and also please the SRSR and the FRN about the transitional days, come in and the Treaty on the transfer and removal of the Radianian Viysks. The history of these negotiations is filled with hostile, dramatic moments, but it is also an independent topic.
The agreement on the residual regulation of the super-train went to the end of the day. Until the middle of the sickle from the German side in the negotiation process was "thrown" food about the recognition of the rights and the validity of the two powers already from the moment of the actual unification of the Nimechchini. On the right, in the fact that the rights are assigned, that validity under the Treaty on Residual Regulation is to be drawn up for itself with ratification and recruitment of rank. At Bonnie, however, they didn’t want to, when the Nimechchina was closed for a short time until the date of the ceremoniality of the contract, it was deprived of under control.
16-17 sickle G.-D. Genscher in the course of the negotiations with Moscow met with these favors. The Radyansk minister gave in to G.-D. Genscher and in a different diet. Vіn having accepted the proponated scheme for formalizing the goitre of the FRN as quickly as possible to the Bundeswehr, as if she conveyed that the declaration would be crushed at the negotiations with Vіdnі, and not at the "shistka" ban. Kerіvnitstvo FRN did not want to work tse tseobov'yazannya part of the residual peaceful regulation, volіyuchi "inscribe" yogo in the wild for the sake of the rapidity of the evil forces that ozbroєn in Europe.
Moscow once again had such a look at food, which was judged on long-term fates after the rise of becoming a serious underdog in the waters between the FRN order and the decline of latifundists and numerous Nazis, which improved moisture in the years4-19.19. From the Radian side, the position was confirmed; G.-D. Genscher did not argue against the contrary, wanting to rely on the need to deprive the German courts of the ability to compensate for the power of individuals, as they themselves had spent її in the wake of Nazi re-research. It was said about the objects, that after the confiscation of the victims, they were transferred to the Nazis, and then they were examined on the basis of the Potsdam site.
G.-D. Genscher spoke out and opposed the inclusion of this power without intermediary to the text of the Treaty on Residual Regulation. All the same, the German minister had a chance to wait a bit, so that before the agreement, they would add sheets to the address of the ministers of foreign rights of the four powers, which would confirm the irreversibility of entering, lived in 1945-1949.
No provision was made for compensation to the Radyansk hulks, who stole to Nimechchina during the period of Timchas occupation of a part of the Radyansk territory, as well as to the death camps. G.-D. Gensher was against the inclusion of this food until the Agreement on the residual regulation, and E. A. Shevardnadze, without showing indulgence and waiting for it to be the object of the regulation. The coming negotiations were held up for a long time, and less than 1992, the power was broken, although the amount of compensation was minimal, not reflecting the severity of moral and physical suffering, as a part of the Radyansk hromadas fell from fascist captivity.
On the 11th of spring 1990 the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USA, Great Britain, France and the two German powers arrived in Moscow. The next day, the work of the conference "2 + 4" was completed and the signing of the agreement until the current hour of the Agreement on the residual regulation of the city of Nimechchini.
The days, which were blown by these zustrichs, were, perhaps, the best in Radian-German diplomatic contacts. In the margins, there were reports about the financing of the war and their transfer to the Nimechchyna, about the share of that kind of non-violence and the other lane of the ZGV. The Radyansk side, pіdrakhuvavshi their consumption, called the amount of 35-36 billion German marks. The FRN squad is ready to see 8 billion marks. The talks were filled with an hour of dramatic character, and M. Z. Gorbachov and R. Kohl especially turned on. In view of the unsafe outlook of the remaining round of negotiations "2 + 4", the FRN squad of disturbances will reconsider their propositions for a large increase in payments. Literally in advance of the Moscow crisis, the financing of the FRN budget was sufficiently reduced. G. Kohl confirmed the readiness to see 3 billion marks for the re-training of Radiansk servicemen, 1 billion marks for the payment of transport fees, 8.5 billion marks for the construction of apartments for military service workers of the Western Group of Forces, 200 million marks for the re-training of military service workers. In addition, we saw a 3-billion-free loan. The nutrition of the vartosta lane of the Western Group of Forces has become inviolable.
Opratsyuvannya financial nutrition, like all negotiations "2 + 4", was in the situation of severe time pressure created by the FRN, which, consciously, did not accept the significance of the optimal solutions. The hostility was lost, that in the position of the FRN, reserves were saved, which could be opened in case of overbearing arrogance and overzealousness from the Radian side. However, Moscow hastened, they did not want to sign the agreement, because it would be better for the second line to aggravate the internal discussion and to comment on the opposition to the development of documents regarding the ob'ednannya Nimechchini and the execution of the territory of the Ryansk military.
Even after that, as the participants of the congress gathered in Moscow, on the evening of 11 April at the negotiations of the end of the "mini-crisis". The English delegation demanded that changes be made to the text of Article 5 of the treaty, which would allow, after the departure of the Radian troops, to redeploy the military contingents of other NATO powers to the territory of the vast NDR for carrying out maneuvers. Zahіdnі partners vyrishili, maybe, "under the guise" virvati the rest of the deed from the Radyansky Union, clearly overstepping the bounds of political propriety. The Radyansk side opposed, the shards of new propositions, in fact, boosted the dominance that had been reached in Arkhiz.
Functions of an intermediary in regulating a guilty diplomatic incident by taking the fault of G.-D. Genscher, steal the storms with possible negative implications of the British initiative. For the order of the FRN, the sight of the planned schedule for the completion of the negotiations was unacceptable, and the German minister took up the power of power. PID Hour of Nichniye Zustykhi Naraji Naraji USA, Great Britain, FRN TA BULO PID PROCEDENT PROTOCULE PROCESS, ZGITEN WITH PANICHA, SHOS TIMCHASOVASEVA, transmitted to the “ROZUMNE” .
Diplomatic contacts were carried out on March 12, which for two years hung up the cob of corn "shistka". After the singing of the war, the radian's curation nevertheless gave the opportunity to propagate the text of the protocol record, and the ministers of the foreign rights of the six powers, nareshti, put their signatures on the document, which was the residual between the other world's wars.
The history of negotiations about the unification of Nimechchini has not ended. Mala buti ratification of the signed agreement. How and if it was clear, it turned out to be far from a routine procedure. At the Verkhovna Rada of the SRSR, a significant part of the deputies was lashed against ratification. The order had a chance to report great zusils, so that the deputies could be reconsidered from the need for ratification. Only before January 1991, the procedure for the approval of the treaty by Parliament was completed.
1. Changes in the foreign policy
The main priorities of the modern political activity of the SRSR after 1985. steel: easing the tension between the Retreat and Sunset through negotiations with the USA about the rozzbroennya; regulation of regional conflicts; recognition of the current order of the world and the expansion of economic links with the usima powers. The change of the new political strategy was prepared by the revolution in the singing part of the elite of the country, the arrival of the 1985 r. new ceramics in the MZS SRSR on the basis of E.A. Shevardnadze.
With the arrival of M.S. Gorbachov, a new philosophical and political concept took shape, which took the name "new political thought". Її the main provisions were passed
Vіdmova vіd ideї pro razkol daylight on two protracted suspile-political systems (socialist and capitalistic); recognition of the world as ciliary and incompetent.
Vіdmova vіd zastosuvannya silly yak zasіb vіrіshennya international problems.
Goloshennya, as a universal way of achieving international nutrition, is not the balance of forces of two systems, but the balance of their interests.
Vidmova in view of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of human values over class, national, ideological, religious and other.
Radian-American blues
At the stage of radiant diplomacy, bilateral relations between the powers were successfully overcome with the help of the special guards of M.S. Gorbachev with the presidents of the United States (1985 - near Geneva; 1986 - near Reykjavik; 1987 - near Washington, 1988 - near Moscow, 1989 - in Malta). The result of the negotiations was the agreement on the reduction of a whole class of nuclear weapons - medium and short-range missiles (Agreement dated December 8, 1987). The Radian side took upon itself the task of dismantling and destroying 1752 rockets, the American side - 869. For this purpose, a detailed system of mutual control was added. In 1991 A treaty was signed on the exchange of strategic offensive defenses (OSNV-I), which put an end to the period of confrontation. It was reached about the development of humanitarian aid, economic aid of the SRSR from the USA.
The SRSR came out of the low new initiatives for rozzbroєnnya (zokrem about the liquidation of nuclear zbroї until 2000). the lands of the Warsaw Treaty made a proposition about the one-hour dissolution of the Allied Forces and NATO (for us in front of their military organizations). In 1989 a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council for the sake of the SRSR was adopted on the speeding up of the SRSR Defense Forces and spending on defense in 1989-1990, which changed the number of the army by 500 thousand. a person, and spending money on defense - by 14.2%. In Europe until 1990 radian and American missiles were eliminated (without the improvement of French and English missiles) of medium and short range, moreover, the stench was reduced, and could not be relocated to other regions. The SRSR also eliminated part of the medium-range missiles near Siberia, the Far Skhod, directed against Japan, Pivdennoy Korea and China. The SRSR took the military advantage in tanks and a special warehouse, and NATO did not have a nuclear advantage. The sign of a new approach to international rights was the year of the SRSR unification of Nimechchini (1990).
Economic contacts from the countries Zakhod
The folded economical camp zmushuval ker_vnitstvo SRSR shukati ekonomіchno ї podpomogi and politicheskoi pіdtrimki near kraїn "simka" (USA, Canada, Great Britain, Nіmechchina, France, Italy, Japan). Radyansk diplomacy reported zusil for the normalization of foreign exchange with non-traditional partners - Israel, PAR, Pivdenny Korea, Taiwan and other countries. Z 1985 a period of intensive expansion of various contacts and contacts between Radiansk organizations and foreign private persons. Radyansk kerіvnitstvo was zatsіkavlene at the development of technіko-economic links, spodіvayuchis otrimati credit and technology. Zahidni krainy, we are going to see England, as if they were expanding trade links with political changes in the middle of the SRSR, and bringing about expanding humanitarian contacts, contacts between private persons. U sichni 1989 The SRSR, having signed the "Vidensky Declaration" of the NBSI, zgіdno s vin goitre to guarantee the rights of people and basic freedoms, and also to bring their legal practice to the level of international recognition. The Law on freedom of conscience and religious organizations was adopted. March 3, 1993 nabuv chivalry Decree on the exit from the SRSR and the entry to the SRSR of the radyansky hromadas. As a result, the act of the radian side of the bagatorase has increased the flow of tourists and business people like in the SRSR, and in the SRSR.
Visible from the lands of Khidnoy and Central Europe
Regardless of the statement about the de-ideologization of international media, the SRSR continued to promote the principles of "socialistic internationalism". From 1986-1989 years. the obligation to provide free assistance to foreign countries, amounting to a total of 56 billion foreign currency rubles (more than 1% of the gross national product). Radiansky kerіvnitstvo with the method of saving "spіvdruzhnostі" continues spіvpratsyu navit from conservatively naštovannymi to radiansk and kerіvniki PDR and Romania. For example, in the 80s, the situation has changed. In 1989 the visitation of radian troops from the lands of Skhidnoy and Central Europe began. As a result of this, the possibilities of the Radian's grip on the reformist movement in the shidnoevropeisky lands have shrunk sharply. The active policy of the SRSR is being promoted towards these countries, and, on the other hand, the American support of the forces of reformation in Northern Europe is expanding.
The most radyansky ovnishnіy clerk played a vital role in the mass vistups against totalitarian regimes and the development of anti-communist revolutions in this region. Radical changes here became one of the reasons for the end of the cold war. U 1989-1990 pp. there were "oxamite" revolutions in Poland, NDR, Czechoslovakia, Ugrian, Bulgaria, Albania. At the breast 1989 The Ceausescu regime in Rumunia was overthrown by a path. 1990 vydbulosya ob'єdnanny Nіmechchini. At once, I opened the traditional economic and political links of the SRSR with the Northern Europe, which also hurt more for the radyansky interests. Spring 1991 vodbuvsya official dissolution for the sake of Economic Mutual Assistance and Organization of the Warsaw Pact.
For the fates of the break, the weakening of international tension, and the opposition of the SRSR and the United States, were brought to us. The "cold war" initiative was due to the Radyansk Union. Conceived by M.S. Gorbachov's radical reforms could not be carried out without a sharp speed of the military-industrial complex, which would bring about all the government's activities. From the first glance, the importance of small scales of demilitarization of the whole life: the collapse of psychology "overlaid with fortress", the voice of power, the shift of the creative potential of the people into the mainstream of creative activity. There were real prospects for the close integration of the SRSR and the krai Skhidnoy Evropi in the world statehood and international political structures. Proteo-political course of M.S. Gorbachev is not straight and easy. The deterioration of the economic situation zmushuvalo kerіvnitstvo SRSR to go to the deeds of Zakhod, podіvayuchis otrimat financial help and political support. A similar policy was used to set up settlements of the Opir from the side of the singing kіl of Suspіlstva, especially in the 80s, if it became obvious that the Radian Union would emerge from the "cold war" weakened and so that it had spent the camp of the superpower. Gruntovala Gorbachev's internal political positions and the cost of the armored camp of the SRSR in Northern Europe.
The collapse of the SRSR
The collapse of the Soviet Socialist Republic is a process of systemic disintegration that took place in the economy (people's state), social structures, and the public and political sphere of the Radian Union, which was brought to the foundation of the Soviet Socialist Republic on December 26, 1991.
The collapse of the Soviet Socialist Republic called for the independence of 15 republics of the Soviet Socialist Republic and the appearance of them on the world political arena as independent powers.
Cause decay
In this hour of the middle of history, there is not a single point of view on those who became the main reason for the collapse of the SRSR, as well as on those who could have been saved if they wanted to start the process of the collapse of the SRSR. Among the possible reasons are called the following:
the centers of nationalistic tendencies, the authorities, according to the ideas of some authors, the skin rich-tonational region and which appear in the sights of the international protirich and the city of the neighboring peoples to independently develop their culture and economy;
panuvannya odnієї іdeologiії, іdeologichna zahorenії, zaborona splіkuvannija iz zakordonom, censorship, vіdsutnіst vіlnogo vіlnogo vygodnja alternatives (especially important for іnteligentsії);
growing dissatisfaction of the population due to interruptions in food and the most necessary goods (refrigerators, televisions, toilet papier too), barren fences and fences (on the size of a garden plot, too), post-stavannya in equal life in different regions of Zakhod;
диспропорції екстенсивної економіки (характерні для всього часу існування СРСР), наслідком яких ставала постійна нестача товарів народного споживання, зростаюче технічне відставання у всіх сферах обробної промисловості (компенсувати яке в умовах екстенсивної економіки можна тільки високовитратними мобілізаційними заходами » був прийнятий у 1987 році, але економічних vikonati yogo’s possibilities were no longer there);
crisis to the economic system: in the 1960s-1970s. The main method of combating the inevitable shortage of goods for the planned economy for the planned economy was based on the mass, simplicity and cheapness of materials, the majority of industries were used by the people, and similar products were made from materials of low quality. The cycle plan is the only way to evaluate the efficiency of enterprises, the quality control is minimized. The result of this was a sharp drop in the quality of the comrades of the people's life among the SRSR, as a result, already on the cob of the 1980s. the term "radianske" to goods is synonymous with the term "low-yak_sne". Crisis dovіri to the level of commodities becoming a crisis dovіri to all economic systems zahalom;
a number of man-made disasters (plane crashes, Chernobyl accident, accident of "Admiral Nakhimov", gas blow-outs, etc.) and receiving information about them;
not far away, try reforming the Radian system, which led to stagnation, and then the collapse of the economy, which caused the collapse of the political system (the economic reform of 1965);
reduction of light prices for naphtha, which stole the economy of the USSR;
monocentrism adopted a solution (only in Moscow), which led to inefficiency and wasted time;
porazka at the messenger ozbroєn, the victory of "reaganomics" at tsіy messengers;
The Afghan war, cold war, uninterrupted financial assistance to the krai's socialist labor camp, the development of the military-industrial complex at the expense of other sectors of the economy ruined the budget.
The possibility of the collapse of the Soviet Socialist Republic was seen in the political science (Helene d'Encausse. "The empire broke apart", 1978) and the publicists of the Radian dissidents (Andriy Amalrik. "What did the Radyansky Union until 1984?", 1969).
Completion of the collapse and liquidation of the ruling structures of the SRSR
The authorities of the USSR, as a subject of international law, pinned the grounds on December 25-26, 1991. Russia voted for itself the purveyor of the membership of the SRSR (and not the offender, as often pardoned) at international institutions, took over the borg and active SRSR and voted itself the head of the entire lane of the SRSR behind the cordon. For the tribute of the Russian Federation, at the end of 1991, the assets of the Union were estimated at 93.7 billion dollars, and assets - at 110.1 billion dollars. Deposits to Zovnishekonombank were close to 700 million dollars. So the titles of "zero option", for which the Russian Federation became the legal protector of the colossal Radiansky Union from the famous borg and assets, including foreign power, was not ratified Verkhovna Rada Ukraine, which claimed the right to order mine SRSR.
On December 25, the President of the SRSR M. S. Gorbachov, having announced his activity in the settlement of the President of the SRSR “from the principles of peace”, signing a decree on the rebuilding of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Radyansk Defense Forces and transferring control of the strategic nuclear strike to the President of Russia B. Ye
On the 26th session of the upper house of the Supreme Chamber of the Supreme Council for the sake of the SRSR, which saved the quorum - for the sake of the Republic (adopted by the Law of the SRSR on 05.09.1991 N 2392-1), - because at that time representatives of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, under the head of A. Alimzhanov’s declaration No. 142-N about the application of the basis of the SRSR, as well as the lower documents Derzhbank V. V. Gerashchenko (No. 144-N) and the first intercessor V. N. Kulikov (No. 145-N)). On December 26, 1991, the date of the foundation of the SRSR is respected in the afternoon, although the deeds were established by the organization of the SRSR (for example, the Derzhstandart of the SRSR, the State Committee for National Education, the Committee for the Protection of the State Cordon) continued to function under the constitutional buv officially released.
After the collapse of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Russia, the "near abroad" to become tz. post-tradyansky expanse.
Short-term perspective
Reincarnation in Russia
The collapse of the Soviet Socialist Republic called for a practically non-gay cob Yeltsinim and yoga with a wide program of conversion. The most radical first boules were:
in the economy - the liberalization of prices on September 2, 1992, which served as the beginning of "shock therapy";
in the political galusi - the fence of the KPRS and KPRSFSR (leaf fall 1991); liquidation of the Rad Zagalom system (March 21 - July 4, 1993).
International conflicts
The remaining fates of the foundation of the SRSR from this territory ignited a number of international conflicts. After this disintegration, most of them negligently passed into the phase of an evil zitknen:
the Karabakh conflict - the war of Nagir Karabakh for independence from Azerbaijan;
Georgian-Abkhaz conflict - conflict between Georgia and Abkhazia;
the Georgian-Pivdenno-Ossetian conflict - the conflict between Georgia and Pivdennoy Ossetia;
Ossetian-Ingush conflict - conflict between Ossetians and Ingush near the Primisky district;
Gromadyanskaya war in Tajikistan - inter-clan Gromadyanskaya war in Tajikistan;
The first Chechen war - the struggle of the Russian federal forces against the separatists in Chechnya;
the conflict near Transnistria is the struggle of the Moldavian government against the separatists near Transnistria.
For the tribute of Volodymyr Mukomel, the number of deaths in international conflicts in 1988-96 was about 100 thousand. osib. The number of refugees in the aftermath of these conflicts was less than 5 million people.
The low conflict did not lead to a full-scale military resistance, but continued to aggravate the situation on the territory of the large SRSR dosi:
tertya between the Crimean Tatars and the mischievous words of the Yan population near the Crimea;
camp of the Russian population in Estonia and Latvia;
national heritage of the Crimean Pivostrov.
80) FORMATION OF A NEW RUSSIAN POWER, 1992 - 2000
Crossing to the market vіdnosin
After the serpentine approaches of 1991, which were brought to the collapse of the SRSR, the order of Russia began to force the transition to the market. For consultations on the implementation of reforms, a group of foreign radniks was requested from J. Sachs (USA). The order, having put economical support, will help Zakhod.
The competitive market could only establish itself on the basis of private power, so it was necessary to privatize (transfer from private power) a significant part of the enterprises, limit the role of the state as the subject of the state.
The most important goals of the reforms were called financial stabilization, liquidation of the budget deficit.
The first step of the reforms was the liberalization of prices from September 1992 for more goods and products. Prices grew for 6 months at 10–12 times. The tendencies of the protection of the population of the mittevo were noticed. The majority of the population of the tsim was afraid of the boundary of vigilance - the reform was not vipadkovo for the people of the "robbery".
Liberalization of prices called for a sharp increase in tariffs for transportation, prices for energy, syrovin, etc. There was a quick drink for a lot of goods and types of products. The increase in prices for grain and vegetables in the rural state led to an increase in prices for grain and vegetables, and an increase in the price of feed led to a rapid increase in thinness, a decrease in the production of meat and milk. Vіtchiznyany silgosprodukti became expensive for іmportnі, which led to the downfall of the entire agro-industrial complex.
The order of bachelors in the conduct of the "monetarist" policy, zgіdno z zgіdno z vtruchannya power in the economy can be minimal. The economy needs to be treated with "shock therapy" - unprofitable enterprises will be bankrupted, and those that survive will be redirected to the release of cheap and acidic products. However, under the threat of bankruptcy until the summer of 1992, a number of galleries appeared.
Chi was not true rozrahunki for a significant financial support Sunset. The deputy of the public 24 billion dollars Russia took away a total of 12.5 billion from the form of loans for the purchase of food from the same western lands. The minds of the Central Bank of Russia are embarrassed to give enterprises significant loans. The decision actually poohovala plan "shock therapy". Inflation began to grow.
At breast 1992, the 7th star of people's deputies in Russia won the position in the order of Є. Gaidar. The new head of the order was approved by V.S. Chernomirdin.
The next stage of reforms was the privatization of state enterprises. The concept of privatization was developed by the Derzhkommain of Russia on the basis of A. Chubais. Згідно з нею було проведено акціонування державних підприємств, 51% акцій розподілялися між працівниками підприємств, а решта надходила у відкритий продаж: кожному росіянину видавався приватизаційний чек (ваучер), вартістю 10 тисяч рублів (сума була визначена виходячи з оцінки майна російських підприємств на 1 січня 1992 in 1 trillion 400 billion rubles) From 1 September 1993 on the voucher it is possible to receive promotions of any business. All over the country, check investment funds were created, the heads of which were the accumulation of funds of the population and the security of investment in virobnitstvo. The social plan of privatization was followed by a meta: creation of the Vlasnik class. However, through inflation, the vouchers were rediscovered. Numerous investment funds, as they took vouchers from the population, one by one slandered themselves with bankrupts. In fact, it seemed to be without a cost of a lot of sovereign power between officials, as if without intermediary zdijsnyuvali privatization, representatives of the big party and government nomenklatura. Privatization more and more became criminal in nature.
The stage of voucher privatization ended in 1994. far away to create a ball of great private lords.
Another stage of privatization began in 1995. Meta yogo bula in the “creation of an effective hairdresser”. Vіd voucher privatization passed to financial. At that hour, the expansion of the Suspіlstva sharply increased. At the beginning of 1994, the income of the top 10% of the poorest 11 times exceeded the income of the smallest of the poorest. At the next stage of sales of shares of enterprises, I followed the first schedule at auctions. Income from penny privatization turned out to be lower, lower was estimated. Sovereign officials actively lobbied for the interests of other banking structures.
On the cob of 1996, the rate of decline in production decreased, but with the help of export-oriented galuzi and processing industries. The new rulers of the privatized enterprises sharply speeded up the investment in the dovgostrokov program development. Often the main funds of businesses - budіvlі, statkuvannya, verstati - were sold and rented to hiring commercial structures. The salaries of the employees were not paid for months, which made them afraid to sell their shares for free. Ishov for the second time redistributed power to the greed of great power stocks, voucher funds, great firms. There was practically no investment in the development of production.
The order for the privatization of industry was small privatization, so that sales of enterprises of retail trade, the sphere of services, and communal eating were too small.
Reforms hit the agrarian sector of the economy. In 1991 the agrarian reform began and at the borders - the land reform, which led to the adoption of the monopoly of state power, the transformation of collective farms and glad state spivs into farmer states and other organizational and legal forms.
Farmer states are beginning to form in the country. Until 2000 Their total number was 270 thousand, including less than 70 thousand. pratsyuvali pributkovo. Thus, the share of farming states in the global community of agricultural production until 2000 was insignificant and amounted to 4%.
Unknown since 1998 there was an increase in the production of poultry farms, an increase in the supply of vaccinated cheeses, sour-milk products, cowbass began. Until 2000, in the center of the legislator's respect and vikonavcho's power, there was food about the possibility of buying and selling any land, including the agricultural land that is being cultivated.
The privatization did not lead to an increase in the number of people. Prote far away change the pace of the fall of virobnitsva. For 1991-1999 r.b. Gross domestic product fell by 50%, industrial production - by 51.5%, and agricultural production - by 40%. Sovereign borg of the country - zovnish and internal - reached 150 billion dollars, and in 1999 the cost of services reached 30% of the state budget. At that very hour, in the country, at that hour, all kinds of markets were created: goods, services, workers, capital, credits. The state no longer controls it, it does not set prices for goods, it does not limit wages. Zі rostannyam tsіn vydіyshli past khronіchnі deficiencies on spare goods, there were chergi at the stores.
The economic reform, which conveyed the crisis to the swede and її naslіdkіv, as a result went into a deaf corner and led the strategy of survival. The change of heads of departments, federal ministers has become a frequent committee of її. For the period from 1992-2000 years. 6 premieres have changed: Е. Gaidar, V. Chernomirdin, S. Stepashin, S. Kirienko, Y. Primakov, V. Putin, the average trivality of the work of the minister was two months.
Formation of a new sovereignty. Liquidation of Radyansk Vlady
Serpnevy under 1991, the liquidation of the Soviet Socialist Republic hung the formation of the foundations of a new sovereignty. Presidential structures began to form in front of us. For the President of Russia it was created - the Rada of Security and the Presidential Rada, the seat of the Sovereign Secretary was ordered. On the missions, the institute of representatives of the President was established, as they established the power of renewal in the service of the Mist Rada. Without intermediary, the president was formed and the Order of Russia, all recognitions were carried out at the direct request of B.M. Yeltsin, the management was acting according to the decrees.
Carried out amendments to the provisions of the RRFSR Constitution of 1977. Vaughn didn't tell the president and the presidential structures of power. He had the very idea of giving power, it was said that all power in the center and in the places lie with the Rada of people's deputies. The supreme body of power is the Z'yzd of People's Deputies, and between the Z'yzds - the Verkhovna Rada of the RRFSR. Ryad buv p_dzvіtny to the Verkhovna Radi.
With the beginning of the reforms and their high cost, political opposition to the president's policy is being formed in the country. The center of the opposition is the Verkhovna Rada of the Russian Federation. Superechnist Glad that the president went into a deaf kut. To change the Constitution, there could be no more than the Z'yzd of people's deputies and a nationwide referendum.
At the birch tree 1993 B. Yeltsin at the age of the citizens of Russia, voicing about the introduction of presidential rule in the country right up to the adoption of a new Constitution. However, this statement called for the formation of all opposition forces. In April 1993, the year of the All-Russian referendum was held, for which there was a food for confidence in the President and encouragement of the yoga course. Most of the participants in the referendum voted for approval before the President. At the presentation of the decision to the referendum, the President announced the drafting of the new Constitution.
December 21, 1993 B.M. Yeltsin voiced the cob of "gradual constitutional reform." Presidential Decree No. 1400, having voted on the dissolution of the Z'ezdu of People's Deputies and the Verkhovna Rada, on the liquidation of the entire system of Rada from the bottom down, voted for elections to the new legislative body of power - the Federal Assembly.
The Verkhovna Rada recognized this decree of the President as such that it does not uphold the Constitution and, at its discretion, adopted a decision on the adoption of the President, which violated the Constitution. A.V. Rutsky. Anti-constitutional vyznav di B.M. Yeltsin and Constitutional Court. The political crisis led to a violent shutdown (July 3-4, 1993) in the hands of the Supreme Radiation of the President. Vіn culminating in the shooting of the Parliament and its dissolution.
After seeing the Decree on holding elections at the new legislative body - the Federal Assembly, which consists of two chambers - for the sake of the Federation and the State Duma. According to the decree, half of the deputies searched for the territorial districts, half - for the lists of political parties of that union. A referendum was held overnight on a new Constitution.
On December 12, 1993, elections were held before the Federal Elections and a referendum on the adoption of a new Constitution. 58.4% of the voters voted for the new constitution (close to 30% of the general public).
Following the elections to the Federal elections, an election was held to the Mistsevyh legislative elections and the Duma, created by the Deputy Council of Rada.
Designed by the Constitution, Russia became a Federative Democratic Republic with a presidential form of government. The President was the guarantor of the Constitution, the head of the state, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. Vіn appointing the order of the country, which may have more power before the President, the President may have the right of a veto, see the Decree, yakі mayut chivalry to the Law. The President has the right to dismiss the Dumi at the time of her three-time nomination of the candidacy of the Prime Minister, as proponated by the President.
The rights of the Sovereign Duma were significantly less equal to the revivals of the Supreme Court, which was dissolved for the sake of subscribing the function of adopting laws. The deputies have lost the right to control the activity of administrative bodies (the right of deputy request). After the adoption by the Duma of the law may be approved by the Rada of the Federation - another chamber of the Federal Assembly, which is among the core legislators of the prosecutor's office and the heads of the administration of the subjects of the Federation. After which law can be approved by the President, and only after that we praise it. The Duma was supported by a number of victorious rights: to solidify the budget of the state, to vote for an amnesty and impeachment of the president, to solidify a candidate for the premier's seat, to prote at the time of the three-time exodus may be dismissed.
At the beginning of 1994, the new federal congresses began their work. Razumіyuchi, scho for the minds of confrontation is impossible normal activity, the deputies and the presidential structures were embarrassed to compromise. At the fierce fate of 1994, the Duma voted an amnesty for the participants of the sick (1991) and the zhovtnevy (1993) subdivisions. Amnesty was given to all those who had committed antipruritic actions both from one side and from the other side. In April-Cherny 1994, a memorandum was adopted on the Gromadyansky world and the Gromadsky year, signings by the Duma factions, the majority of political parties and the Russian Revolution. The signing of these documents has shrugged off the enormous resistance of the community.
The president's did not get far enough to support the radical economic course, which made him crazy. In a row, the pribіchnіv of radical transformations were seen. Gaidar and B. Fedorov.
The deteriorating economic situation in the country led to a change in the state of the economy. Tse zasvіdchi podbags vyborіv from a friend of the State Duma, which took place on December 17, 1995.
The other Duma appeared more in opposition to the order of the presidents, lower first.
Right after the battle of the summaries of the Duma elections, the struggle for the presidency began. The candidates for the presidency were: V. Zhirinovsky (LDPR), G. Zyuganov (KPRF), General A. Lebid, G. Yavlinsky, ophthalmologist S. Fedorov, billionaire V. Brintsalov, ex-president of the SRSR M. Gorbachev, B. n. Yeltsin.
Cherry 1996 saw the first round of presidential elections. The votes of the electors were divided in such a way. B.M. Yeltsin - 35.28%, G. Zyuganov - 32.04%. The other contenders took fewer votes.
In another round of selections on 3 April 1996, the fate of B.M. 53.8% voted for Yeltsin, yakі took part in the elections, for G. Zyuganov 40.3%. The main concerts of the selection campaign of B.M. Yeltsin became "Zyuganov - tse hromadyanskaya war". Bulo on Uvaz, that the transition of power to communism is significant new transferred to power. And now, if the sovereignty has passed into private hands, it is possible only by the strength of the enemy. Redesign B.M. Yeltsin for a new term was not brought to stabilization in the country.
The constant opposition of the legislators and that presidential power led to the fact that the most important economic nutrition was not violated. The real political power of the greater world is in the hands of the largest financial groups, which vindicated the hour of privatization and the rise of state power. Qi groups were cleaned up to the hands of everyone electronic data mass information Corruption and financial machinations have flourished in all the powers that be. Terrorist acts, vbivstviya on zamovlennya bankirіv, pіdpriєmtsіv, političnіh dіyachіv, zhurnalistіv have become the most obvious phenomenon.
The main mass of the population of Russia was completely alienated from the vlady. Vlada, like a vikonavcha, and a legislator, was vilified in front of the people, accepted as if she were alien to the interests of people. The most important food of the 1990s was the culmination of the problem of national-powerful life and national freedoms.
December 18, 1999 elected the third Sovereign Duma. Її head, like the other Duma, becoming G. Seleznyov. On the vіdmіnu vіd vіd єї svoєї priednitsі in nіy was not clearly expressed left chi right bigness.
After the elections of the Duma on December 31, 1999 B.N. Yeltsin made a statement about the transfer of the President's new importance to the dignified Prime Minister V. Putin. Vіdpovidno to the Constitution on 26 March 2000 bulo held dostrokovі presidential elections. 11 people put forward their candidacies for the vista of the land. Among them are W. Putin, R. Zyuganov, R. Yavlinsky, A. Tuleyev, Ege. Panfilova and others. The pitched tone of the speeches of the contenders was raised to the promotion of the role of the state in solving economic, political and social problems under the rule of law. V. Putin became the President of Russia, and M. Kasyanov became Prime Minister.
Subjects of the Russian Federation
More Spring 1991 M.S. Gorbachev announced to the autonomous republics, territories and regions the direct participation in the signing of the agreement on the Friendship of Sovereign Powers on equal rights with the allied republics. B.M. Yeltsin pishov far away, admonishing the autonomists of the autonomies to take new shoes, the shoes can be “forged”. Through the war, all autonomous republics declared themselves sovereign powers (Tatarstan adopted the first declaration of sovereignty). In the republics, elections of presidents were held, national constitutions were adopted. The most hospitable food for sovereignty was put by the republics, which have great natural reserves (Tatarstan - oil, Yakutia - diamonds toshko. Bud.). The stench had the right to control over the nadras and the ability to manage independently natural resources. In this order, after the collapse of the SRSR, it was given, the black of Russia came. Tim more, that the distance from the center was the first to be carried out by the Russian leaders themselves, as they started the trends in the center.
After three important negotiations, on March 31, 1992, a Federative Agreement was signed, signifying the mutual agreement between the subjects of the Russian Federation. Zgіdno with the agreement land, nadra, natural resources were actually voted by the joint authorities of the federal authorities and authorities of the subjects of the Federation. The subjects of the Federation took away the right to dispose of their natural resources, while the federal bodies owned the control of their international economic activity. Recognizing the sovereign sovereignty of the subjects of the Federation, but they did not have the right to exit from the warehouse of Russia.
Most of the republics were satisfied with the frequent actions of the central government - the agreement was signed by all autonomies, Crimea, Tatarstan and Chechnya. The President of Tatarstan M. Shaimiev was able to sign (Luty 1994) an agreement that sufficed food for the earth, natural resources, enterprises.
The most important form of conflict is in Chechnya. Torishny sickle 1991 in the Chechen-Ingush Republic, mass rallies and demonstrations took place in support of the Supreme Command for the sake of the Chechen-Ingush Republic. The order of Russia started to think about it as a struggle of democratic forces against the communist order, which supported the State Emergency Committee. The Verkhovna Rada was dissolved, the new Chechen Church announced its independence from Russia. General D. Dudaev became president, having voted for the creation of the independent Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (Ingushetia saw an independent republic at the warehouse of Russia). Chechens zahopil Mayno that ozbroennya Radianskaya Army on the territory of the republic, blocked zaliznitsi and highways. As we cut off the oil pipeline from Baku to Novorossiysk, a massive exodus of the Russian population from the territory began.
Engaged in political struggle Russian government until 1994 did not deal with Chechen problems.
In 1994 The federal government tried to win the internal struggle between different political forces in Chechnya, taking the position of supporting the grouping, oriented towards an alliance from Russia. With the help of a method for breastfeeding 1994 for the establishment of constitutional order, the military was ordered. This introduction led to a full-scale war, which lasted until April 1996. Trying to oppose D. Dudayev and the other Chechen leader D. Zavgaev did not succeed. On top of those, fighting, mass bombardment of the population centers of the Grozny metropolitan area called out against the large population. Chechen fighters practiced such barbaric methods of warfare, as if they were burying guards (near red 1995 near the Budenovska metro station, Stavropol Territory; sich 1996 near the Kizlyar metro station, Dagestan). Ahead of the presidential elections in 1996 B.M. Yeltsin signed a one-day trip to Grozny, signed a decree on the infliction of military actions, declaring that the war had ended and the separatist forces had been defeated.
Vlitka 1996 Secretary For the sake of security, A. Lebid spoke with the chief of staff of the Chechen massacres, A. Maskhadov, who stunned the Chechen opir following the death of D. Dudaev. On April 31, 1996, in the city of Khasavyurt (Dagestan), a joint statement was signed about the signing of military actions near Chechnya. Until 31 December 2001, it is clear that there is no news about the status of Chechnya until December 31, 2001. The war ended, they died close to 4.5 thousand. Russian military servicemen and 703 were missing.
The outburst of A. Lebed was called out by the dissatisfaction of the president and the future of 1996 by decree of B.N. Yeltsin A. Lebid buv zvіlneniy vіd obov'yazkіv Secretary for the Sake of Safety. Russian military were taken from Chechnya, which meant the defeat of Russia. Zavgaev's prihilniks were thrown at will, most of them were arrested, richly reduced. In Russia, the war called out a very negative reaction. In the year 1997, A. Maskhadov was elected President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Vіn having become conduct a course for achieving independence in Russia. For specific minds at that time, the recognition of the independence of Chechnya could have led to the strengthening of separatist tendencies in other regions of Russia. The tightening of the end of the problem early led to a new resistance. Torishny sickle 1999 drive the Chechen fighters invaded the territory of Dagestan to expand the conflict. Mayzha at once near Moscow, the Volga-Donsk were pierced by the vibukhas of the living houses. The reaction of the federal authorities to the terrorist acts was the introduction of the military to Chechnya. Birch on the cob 2000 r. Russian military forces defeated the main groups of Chechen militants.
Russia and world
After the breakup of the Radyansk Union, a new positive political situation emerged for Russia. 15 new powers became the deputy of the big Soviet Socialist Republic. Rozpochavsya podіl ozbroєnnya, the process of creation of national armies. Vinikli new middle tensions, super rivers about the cordon, local conflicts, which can turn into a new war (Karabakh, Pivdenna Ossetia, Abkhazia, Transnistria, Tajikistan and other). The defense of Russia suffered significantly. Cordons with many republics of the SRSR were practically daily. The most difficult groupings of the military were roztashovanі vzdovzh kordonіv Kolishny SRSR and became the core of the army of the new powers. The Russian fleet has entered bases in the Baltic states. Bulo actually zruynovano single system of PPO.
The direct priority of the foreign policy of Ukraine and Russia was made in the neighboring countries. However, the understanding of which did not come at once. At the same time, Russian diplomacy gave Pershochergovian respect to the abundance of water from Sunset.
The goals of the Union of Independent Powers (SND) were clearly defined, but the joint bodies were created, building to really achieve common functions (like the European Union). A number of powers, such as Ukraine, looked at the SND as an organ of security for the "civilized separation" of the many republics of the SRSR. Gostrі problems vynikli already under the hour of the attack of the enemy forces and the destruction of the colossal SRSR. Viysk parts, for a little bit of strategic nuclear forces, reordering those powers, beating like a stench rose up. Against the backdrop of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine over the drive of the Black Sea Fleet. The President of Ukraine L. Kravchuk has translated all of the military formations that are deployed on the territory of Ukraine, including the fleet under the jurisdiction. Russia declared that the Black Sea Fleet should continue to exist. Pochavsya elemental approached the fleet. This conflict aggravated the status of the city of Sevastopol. A number of political leaders in Russia began to challenge the legitimacy of the transfer of Crimea to Ukraine in 1954. After long negotiations in Cherry 1995, the presidents of the two krai signed an agreement on the division of the fleet at a ratio of 2: 1 (two thirds - Russia, one third - Ukraine).
There was a news about the rozpodіl nuclear ozbroєn kolishnogo SRSR, placement on the territory of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan. Belarus and Kazakhstan once declared their status as non-nuclear powers, while Ukraine declared itself the master of the nuclear weapons deployed on its territory. Just because of the pressure on the side of the United States, the won was driven by claims to become a nuclear power in exchange for Russia's goiter to supply uranium enrichment for Ukrainian nuclear power plants.
Lately, the Union of Independent Powers (USI) was planning to save a single economic space. The coordination of economic reforms was carried out, the saving of the ruble as a single currency. The borders of the SND could not manage to hold a united economic policy. Trade between Russia and the lands of the SND was carried out by a significant amount of credit, which was issued by the Central Bank of Russia. Credits were bezvіdsotkovimi chi pіd even low vіdsotok, scho for the minds of inflation was very imperceptible in Russia. In the fall of 1993, Russia sent in a new Russian ruble, which led to the collapse of the single karbovanets zone. This called hyperinflation in the krains of the CIS, the economic crisis and the collapse of the single economic space.
On the 24th of spring 1993, nine large republics signed an agreement on an economic union, which would lead to the destruction of integration, the formation of a zone of free trade. Ale cei the agreement was left richly in what on the paper. Russian ceramics planted economical cordons, planted mittens. Worked hard in order to secure Russian enterprises in the competition of goods of the “near abroad”. Ale, as a result, Russia recognized great political expenses. Won spent a long vacation to the markets of Europe and Central Asia and was embarrassed to pay for the transit of their goods through the territories of the CIS powers. The rapid exchange of goods between the lands of the CIS has led to a reorientation of their economies towards cooperation with other partners. Only 25% of Russia's foreign trade turnover falls to the least part of the CIS countries.
The problem of refugees has become an important problem in Russia. Through the war, the collapse of the Soviet Socialist Republic, the posture of Russia was revealed by over 25 million Russians. The lands of the Baltic have decidedly headed for the victory of the Russians, pursuing the policy of the rank and file. In Latvia, for example, those who were not the home of my native nation, were not hulking, could not convert and be liberated, lead unruliness, embrace the lowly sovereign estates. Ethnic problems have become acute in Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Kazakhstan and others. The resettlement of ethnic Russian and other Russian nationalities from Russia began. The number of immigrants was 2-2.5 million people. Vinikli problems from living, from pracevlashtuvannyam bіzhentsіv.
While in the economic situation in the lands of the "near abroad" there was a process of economic disintegration, then the vii spywareness continued to be saved. Russian cordons guarded the cordons of Spivdruzhnosti in the Caucasus and Central Asia, which created a real threat of invasion from the dry land of Afghanistan. Russian peacekeepers are grouped in "hot spots" - near Transnistria, Abkhazia, Pivdenny Ossetia. The detachment of Georgia and Virmenia turned back to the Russian warfare from the proposition about the creation of Russian military bases on their territory.
Step by step, tendencies are beginning to grow in the krains of the CIS until the installation of tighter exports from Russia. In the spring of 1996, at the borders of the SND, it was signed for the sake of the integration of some of the participants in Russia. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in spring 1998 Tajikistan came before them. In early 1999, an agreement was signed on the unification of Belarus and Russia. Obviously, before the treaty, the offending powers took care of their sovereignty, and then international bodies were created, delegating a number of new things.
After the catastrophe of the SRSR, the current policy of Russia was oriented more importantly towards Zahid, closer to the USA. Russia pursued a policy of action, followed the strategic interests of the country. The Kerivniki of Russia did not want to put up with the second status of a great power and had little illusions about the possibility of equal rights from the United States. President B.M. Yeltsin, officially declaring that Russian nuclear missiles are no longer aimed at objects in the United States. At the signings, an hour for a visit to the USA B.M. Yeltsin in Chernivtsi 1992 declared that "Russia and the Successful States of America do not consider one single potential adversary." At the beginning of 1993, a new agreement on the exchange of strategic offensive defenses (OSNV-2) was laid down between Russia and the United States, so that until 2003, the nuclear potential of both countries could be reached by 2/3, according to the agreement one . Russia took advantage of the unilateral withdrawal of SS-18 missiles from combat charring, which became the basis of the Radian strategic potential. Tsey krok meaning, in essence, vіdmovu vіd vіyskovo-strategіchnogo parity.
Russian diplomacy, in its decisions, soundly followed the lead of the current US policy. Russia introduced economic sanctions against Iraq, came to international economic sanctions against Yugoslavia. By the singing of the world, such an accommodating attitude of Russian diplomacy was explained by support for a large-scale assistance to Sunset.
The proteges of Russia did not manage to cope. The United States did not hesitate to consider our country as an equal partner. The United States was deprived of a single superpower and jumped to the maximum victoriousness of its camp. In 1994, a number of large socialist lands, as well as the Baltic lands (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) announced their intention to join NATO. Russia is not small in real importance in the flow of developments. It was declared that the Pivnichno-Atlantic pact was not direct against any other countries, but a guarantee of security in Europe. By compromise, the program “Partnership for the sake of peace” was propagated, as it established the forms of military cooperation of the Warsaw Pact with NATO. Russia came to the program. However, the expansion of NATO did not support the program in the same rank. In red 1997, at the session For the sake of NATO in Madrid, the decision to accept Poland, Ugorshchina, Czechoslovakia to NATO was praised.
At the beginning of 1996, the deputy of B. Kozirev became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, becoming Y. Primakov. Under the pressure of Russia, the Security Council of the UN passed economic sanctions against Yugoslavia. Russia sued the American bombing of Iraq in the spring of 1996. Russian diplomacy tried to reaffirm its position in the regulation of the Arab-Israeli conflict at the Close Descent. In the fierce fate of 1996, Russia was adopted to the sake of Europe.
The most successfully developed economic links between Russia and the Western countries. At the first stages of the foundation of independent Russia, the stench was like giving Russia credits, humanitarian assistance with food and medicines. For all international economic organizations, Russia has included only the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in its warehouse. Taking the position of the new ceramics, the edge accents and the daedals moved more to the improvement of the new economic development, large-scale foreign investment. In line with Russia, a Consultative Rada was created with foreign investments to attract a surplus of capital.
At the red 1994 rock on about. Carthus (Greece) was signed for the sake of Russia with the European trade union, as a sign that Russia was recognized as a country with a transitional economy. Pleasure created opportunities for equal economic cooperation from Western Europe. To whom the other people were praised for the decision about the expansion of the "sim cards" of the leading European countries for the Russian account. With whom it was voiced that Russia's brother's fate is less for the chosen political decisions, and not for the economic ones. In this way, step by step, the mutually supportive partnerships with the "distant abroad" are rewarded. Prote z ob'ektivnoi sformirovaniyah reasons behind Russia's Dedal and more consolidated the role of post-manager of pale-syrup resources. We spent a lot of time gaining relatively small positions on the world markets of high-tech products, like the Radiansky Union. The main important economic task in the order is to seek the support of the Russian in industry for the sake of brilliance of highly efficient foreign technologies and financing of additional foreign investments will be far from allowed.
In order of recognition from Sunset, Russian diplomacy conducted a dialogue with the lands of the Skhod. The main support was given to the supply of foreigners from Japan. The normalization of the air with Russia, the signing of the peace treaty, the Japanese detachment closely pov'yazav іz pitannia about the turn of Japan Pvdenno-Kuril Islands, yakі vіdіyshli before the SRSR in the wake of the Other World War. Shche M.S. Gorbachev recognized the basis of territorial nutrition between the USSR and Japan. Zgodom B.M. Yeltsin and the Minister of Foreign Affairs A. Kozirev, pragmatically pozvavit the dynamics of political and economic ties, made low-ambiguous statements about the need to end the territorial superechki. However, the application called out a very negative reaction from the suspіlstvі. The president of the storms confirmed the inviolability of the Russian cordons. Only since 1996, the rock has begun to sing progress in mutuality. Є. Primakov introduced a number of propositions for sustainable economic activity in the Pivdenny Kuriles. These propositions were well known in Japan.
Until 2000 completed the demarcation of the cordons from China. Usі prikordonnі superechki bulo taken, China pretended to be one of the largest trading partners in Russia. The most important direct foreign policy of Russia has become the Middle Asian region
The visitation of the radian troops from Afghanistan did not lead to fighting there. The conflict recurs at the international essence. Zіtknennya different national groups spread to the territory of the large Soviet Socialist Republic, snared Tajikistan and created an unmediated threat to the Russian republics.
At that very hour, contacts with the traditional partners of the SRSR - the DPRK, Mongolia, and Vietnam weakened. Rose all stosunki z Іrakom. "Shіdniy" directly rosіyskoї zvnіshnії ї politіv zalivavsya other row. Less than, beginning in 1997, in connection with the expansion of NATO in the war, Russia sometimes activated the blue from India and China.
Zagal until the end of the 90s, the modern policy of Russia nabula more clear outlines that protect the national interests and priorities of the country.
The culture is fucked up
The most dramatic changes occurred in the sphere of the social sphere. The reforms hit the material interests of dozens of millions of people.
At the link with the liberalization of prices in 1992, the population protection was increased. At the heavy camp, the pensioners stooped. A significant part of the population, which was allowed to become healthy, began to join new minds, know new earnings - trading, working at a large number of places.
At the same time, a decrease in penny incomes significantly improved the camp from the provision of goods and products to the population. Once, the counters of the shops came up, chergs appeared, as if they were indispensable attributes of the life of the Radyansk people. There was such an understanding, like a shortage - now you can buy practically everything.
There was a disproportion in the distribution of wages - the wages of the galleys increased at a faster pace, as they may be able to dictate prices for their products and services.
Regional differentiation has grown. Regions with export-oriented galleys (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Sakha-Yakutia, Zahidno-Siberian region, Lipetsk, Bilgorod, Vologodsk, Samara regions and others) are rich. Regions with great importance of small galleys, especially light and defensive ones (Central, Pivnichno-zahіdny regions, the Urals and others.) became penniless. At the Naivazhchom camp, Kraynya Pivnich and Far Skhid stumbled. Through a sharp increase in prices for electricity, naphtha, gas, the production became unprofitable. In the winter of 2001, many places and villages were left without heat and electricity. Once the living fund is rotting.
Difference grew sharply for equal income for a social sign (between hired workers and lords and employers). For tribute for 1999 earn 10% of the richest 26 times and lower for the income of the 10% richest. According to different estimates, nearly a quarter of the population is less than the average subsistence minimum.
A common occurrence has become chronic delays in wages (for 6 and more months). Strikes and rallies in order to pay wages were regularly held in all regions of the country. There were such extreme methods, like starvation, blocking the airways and motor roads. That hustle and bustle of paying pensions has become a chronic phenomenon.
At the outrageous show of life, for the Radyansk hours, social payments were made from the hromada funds of welfare. For rahunok tsikh fundіv zdіysnyuvalis free osvіta, health protection, cheaper living, funded budinki vіdpochinku and culture, pioneer camps, children's gardens, crèches toshcho. With the cob of reforms, the tse began to be transferred to a paid basis. Formally, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, it is guaranteed to be free of charge and professional education, medical services, in fact, their financing from the federal and municipal budgets has been sharply shortened.
The state virishuvala tsі problems for expansion paid services. In 1992 it was decided to switch to insurance medicine. Іz zarobіtnoї pay tsіl'ovym prichennyam vіdrahovuvavsya sevny vіdsotok, scho yshov to pay for medical services. Insurance companies ordered these coins, paid for the rahunki. However, these costs were clearly not enough - more and more medical services for the pay of the patient.
The decline in living standards has led to serious demographic changes. Since 1992, the fate of mortality began to outweigh the people - the process of natural losses of the population began. The population of Russia in support of the reforms has shrunk to 148.3 million people. 1991 roku, up to 147.8 million people. 1995 rock. And despite the fact that there was a significant migration to Russia, Russians and representatives of other Russian nationalities from the lands of the SND, there is no discrimination (Kazakhstan, the Baltic States, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, etc.). The number of immigrants for approximate tributes was 2–2.5 million people.
The trivality of life was shortening sharply (up to 58 years for men and up to 67 years for women). In 2 times, the number of ailments for tuberculosis increased, in 5 times - alcoholic psychosis, in 40 times - syphilis.
In the gallery, afterward, the rapid financing of the roaming of the process of commercialization. Already, for example, the 80s of the 80s, they began to look like obov'yazkovoy average lighting, but the lighting continued to be free of koshtovnoy and incandescently accessible. However, in 90 years of short-term finance, the differentiation of education began. The most powerful schools began to transform into gymnasiums, lyceums with the destruction of other disciplines. The profile classes began to appear - mathematical, humanitarian, natural. Moreover, it was necessary to rozpodіl obov'yazkovі (no money) and additional (paid) basic items.
Such processes themselves went on at the sphere higher enlightenment. At the sovereign vishas there were creations of mercantile duties, the number of students on them grew up for the short time of a costless reception. Postgraduate studies became paid. І in the middle, і in your school the non-state (private) sector of education is being actively formed.
Vidchutnyh zbitkiv recognized fundamental science: academic, university, galuzev. At 14 times, the sovereign's zamovleny on the viysk scientific and advanced research and design developments were held fast. The momentum of finance has brought the scientific and technical potential of NDI to the verge of collapse. Previously, a significant part of the financing of scientific research was made up of contracts with enterprises, which fit on the top of the quieter chimneys. Now more businesses are not small costs to pay for wages. The camp did not turn out that competitions for the withdrawal of grants for financing science practices The foreign funds of Soros and Ford, the stench only "was a year" for a small part of the science workers, at one time revealing the most important successors, whose rozrobki could become in good fortune in the krains.
Through the war, the number of employees employed in the field of science for 1991–1996 was short-lived. in 1991 roci. shrunk from 4.2% to 2.5%. Prodovzhuvavsya "vіdpliv mіzkіv" at the commercial structure that for the cordon. Over 125,000 scientists of science flew out of Russia behind deakim assessments for the fates of reforms. A lot of scientific institutions were liquidated or burnt out to scientific work.
In the gallery of the industry, the transition to the market economy led to ambiguous results. From one side, Russian culture appeared free for creativity, open for light culture. Vaughn intensively mastered all the artistic styles and forms, all the aesthetic flows that light culture has. Russian children's cultures and arts were actively involved in the world's creative life, performed in the largest international forums. Wide popularity having watched the Virtuosi of Moscow ensemble, the films of M. Mikhalkov “Ochi black” and “Tamed by the sun” (which won the “Oscar” award in 1995), S. Bodrov’s “Caucasian Branets” and in.
From the other side, Russian culture from the hours of Peter I was small support of the state. With the transition to the market ones, the role of the regulator of the creative process will be transferred to the support of artistic values - a looker, a reader, a listener. Tse vede to the commercialization of art, to the orientation of yoga on the mass supporter. The short-term sovereign finance in the super-heavy camp has supplied museums, theatres, libraries, storage facilities and central national pride to the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Russian National Library and others. The circulation of literary journals has plummeted. There has been a sharp decrease in the artistic level of works of literature and fiction - the book market has become filled with detectives, pornography, licorice "woman novels". The television program increased its stake on the number of American series and various TV shows (lotteries, games with prizes). For 90 years, there were practically no new names in literature, art, not to those who had no talents, but to those who had to break through the edge - the market appeared to be monopolized, and for the promotion of new stars, great pennies were needed.
At one time, the power was stained with large koshtos for holding massive jewelry urochistas (50th anniversary of Peremoga, 800th anniversary of the Russian fleet, 850th anniversary of Moscow), which may have ideological significance. The Cathedral of Christ the Savior was restored, there were 30 churches, near Moscow a whole complex of monumental sculptures was created, created by Z. Tsereteli (Obelisk of Peremoga, the composition “The Tragedy of the Peoples” on Poklonniy Gori, a monument to Peter I and others).
Enthusiasm...