The nucleus of an atom, which is made up of two nucleons. Warehouse that Budov atomic nucleus (briefly). Features of nuclear forces

Chromatin

1) heterochromatin;

2) euchromatin.

Heterochromatin

Structural

optional

Euchromatin

a) histone proteins;

b) non-histone proteins.

Yo Histone proteins (histones

Yo Non-histone proteins

Yadrіshko

Rozmir - 1-5 microns.

EForm - spherical.

Granular component

fibrillar

Nuclear shell

1. Exterior nuclear membrane (m. nuclearis externa),

Inner nuclear membrane

Functions:

Karyoplasma

Reproduction of clitin

Nuclear apparatus

The nucleus is in all eukaryotic clitins, behind a crown of mature erythrocytes and sieve-like tubes of roslin. The cells sound like one nucleus, but sometimes the rich-nuclear cells grow.

The core is buvaє kuljastoi chi oval.

Some clitinae have segmented nuclei. The diameter of the nuclei is 3 to 10 microns in diameter. The core of the essential life of a clitin. It regulates the activity of cells. The nucleus saves decaying information that is stored in the DNA. Tsya іnformatsija zvdjaka kernel at rozpodіlі kіtini is transferred to dоchіrnіmi clitiny. The nucleus determines the specificity of proteins that are synthesized in cells. The kernel has silent proteins, necessary security of its functions. The nucleus synthesizes RNA.

Clitin core adds up to husk, nuclear juice, one or more dekilkoh nuclei and chromatin.

Functional role nuclear shell polygaє in water-cream genetic material (chromosome) eukaryotic cells in the form of cytoplasm with powerful and numerical metabolic reactions, as well as regulation of bilateral interactions between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane is made up of two membranes - outer and inner, between which they are separated navconuclear (perinuclear) space. Rest can look at the tubules of the cytoplasmic membrane. External membrane the nuclear envelope is in direct contact with the cytoplasm of the cell, has a number of structural features that allow it to be carried to the upper membrane system of the EPR. On it, there is a large number of ribosomes, like on the membranes of ergastoplasma. The inner membrane of the nuclear membrane of ribosomes does not appear on its surface, but is structurally bound to nuclear lamina- Fibrous peripheral ball of the nuclear protein matrix.

At the nuclear shell nuclear pores with a diameter of 80-90 nm, yakі utvoryuyutsya for rahunok numerical zones zlittya two nuclear membranes and є like bi rounded, through perforations all nuclear shell. Pory plays an important role in the transfer of speech from the cytoplasm and from it. Nuclear porosity complex (NPC) with a diameter of close to 120 nm may be the same size (it is accumulated over 1000 bіlkіv - nucleoporins, the mass of which is 30 times larger, lower ribosome), which indicates the folding mechanism of regulation of nuclear-cytoplasmic movement of speech and structures. In the process of nuclear-cytoplasmic transport, the nuclear pores function like a molecular sieve, passing particles of the same volume passively, following a concentration gradient (ions, carbohydrates, nucleotides, ATP, hormones, proteins up to 60 kDa). Pori є postіynimi utvochennyami. The number of fires increases during the period of the greatest nuclear activity. Kіlkіst pіr lie in the functional camp of kіtini. The more synthetic activity in clitins, the greater their number fit. It is proven that in the lower spinal creatures in erythroblasts, hemoglobin is intensively accumulated and accumulated, about 30 pir per 1 μm2 of the nuclear tunic. In mature erythrocytes, the names of creatures, which take up nuclei, per 1 μg of the tunic are deprived of up to five, tobto. 6 times less.

In the area of ​​the feather complex, the so-called schіlna platіvka - a protein ball that supports the stretched inner membrane of the nuclear membrane. Tsya structure vikonu є peredusіm the basic function, oskolki for її manifestness the form of the nucleus zberіgaєtsya razі ruynatsії both membranes of the nuclear shell. It is also allowed that a regular connection with the speech slit of the scarf is attached to the ordered rosterization of chromosomes in the interphase nucleus.

Nuclear sik (karyoplasma or matrix)- The inner part of the nucleus, is a variety of proteins, nucleotides, ions, more viscous, lower hyaloplasm. The new one also has fibrillar proteins. Karioplasma has nuclei and chromatin. Nuclear juice establishes the inner core of the nucleus, at the link with which it plays a role in ensuring the normal functioning of the genetic material. At the warehouse of nuclear juice there are thread, or fibrillar, proteins, There are some reasons for changing the support function: the matrix also has the primary products of transcription of genetic information - heteronuclear RNA (hnRNA), which immediately undergo processing, transforming into mRNA.

Yadrіshko- obov'yazykovy component of the nucleus, which appear in the interphase nuclei and are a small body, stump form. The nucleus can be made larger, the lower core. In nuclei, the synthesis of rRNA, other types of RNA, and the adoption of subunits is carried out. ribosome. The vinification of the nuclei is associated with the song zones of the chromosomes, which are called nuclear organizers. The number of nuclei is determined by the number of nuclear organizers. The stench of the gene rRNA. The rRNA genes occupy the sevnі dіlyanki (false according to the type of creature) one or more chromosomes (in humans 13-15 and 21-22 pairs) - nuclear organizers, in the sphere of such and the nuclei are settled. Such dilyanki in metaphase chromosomes look like sounds and are called secondary constrictions. Behind the help of an electron microscope in the nucleus, nipples and granular components are revealed. A non-partial (fibrillar) component of representations by complexes of protein and giant molecules of RNA-anterior, from which other molecules of adult rRNA are then established. In the process of ripening, fibrils are transformed into ribonucleoprotein grains (granules), which are representations of the granular component.

Chromatin structures look like glyboks, scattered in nucleoplasm, є interphase form chromosomes clitiny.

Ribosome - rounded ribonucleoprotein portion with a diameter of 20-30 nm. Ribosomes reach the non-membrane organelles of the cell. Ribosomes contain amino acid residues in polypeptide lancets (protein synthesis). Ribosomes are even smaller in number.

It is made up of small and large subunits, which are combined in the presence of matrix (informational) RNA (mRNA). A small subunit contains protein molecules and one molecule of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), while the other contains proteins and three rRNA molecules. Protein and rRNA by mass in equal numbers take part in the development of ribosomes. rRNA is synthesized in the nucleus.

One mRNA molecule sounds like a sprat of ribosomes per square of a namist thread. This structure is called polysome. Polysomes are freely spread in the main cytoplasmic cavity or attached to the membranes of the short cytoplasmic membrane. In both types of stench, it is the source of active protein synthesis. Порівняння співвідношення кількості вільних і прикріплених до мембран полісом в ембріональних недиференційованих та пухлинних клітинах, з одного боку, і в спеціалізованих клітинах дорослого організму – з іншого, привело до висновку, що на полісомах гіалоплазми утворюються білки для власних потреб (для домашнього користування) цієї клітини At the same time, proteins are synthesized on the polysomes of the granular membrane, which are produced from cells and vicarious for the body's needs (for example, herbal enzymes, breast milk proteins). Ribosomes can freely rest in the cytoplasm or join with the endoplasmic mesh, entering the warehouse of the short EPS. Proteins, which are synthesized on free ribosomes, are depleted in hialoplasm. For example, on free ribosomes, hemoglobin is synthesized in erythrocytes. The mitochondria, plastids and clitins of prokaryotes also have ribosomes.

Front Advance

LOOK FORWARD:

The structure of the core and yoga chemical warehouse

Chromatin, nucleus, karyoplasm (nucleoplasm), nuclear envelope enter into the nuclear warehouse.

In clitins, yak extend, in most vipadkivs, there is one nucleus, but clitins are narrowed, yak may have two nuclei (20% of clitins of the liver are binuclear), as well as rich nuclei (osteoclasts of the cystic tissue).

Rosemary - kolivayutsya vіd 3-4 to 40 microns.

The skin type of cells is characterized by a constant spivation of the contraction of the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Such a spіvvіdnoshennia is called the Gertving index. Fallow, according to the value of this index, the plants are divided into two groups:

1. nuclear - the Hertwing index is more significant;

2. Cytoplasmic - Hertwing index is insignificant.

ЕForm - can be spherical, stick-like, bean-like, ring-shaped, segmented.

E-localization - the core of the beginning is localized in the singing space of the cell. For example, in cylindrical clitinae, the valve is in the basal position.

The core in the clitiny can be changed in two camps:

a) mitotic (pіd podіlu);

b) interphase (between roses).

In living interphase cells, the nucleus may look optically empty, it appears only as a nucleus. The structure of the nucleus in the look of threads, grains can only be traced when there are factors on the clitin, which are ear-shaped, if there is paranecrosis at the camp (near-cord camp between life and death). Why can a clitina turn to normal life chi die. After the death of cells, morphologically, the following changes are distinguished in the nucleus:

1) karіopіknosis - the splintering of the nucleus;

2) karіoreksіs - laying out of the nucleus;

3) karіolisis - division of the nucleus.

Functions: 1) saving and transferring genetic information,

2) protein biosynthesis; 3) the establishment of subunits of ribosomes.

Chromatin

Chromatin (a kind of walnut chroma - color of farb) is the main structure of the interphase nucleus, as it is better to be fermented by the main barnocks and used for the skin type of clitin of the chromatin babies of the nucleus.

Zavdyaki zdatnosti good ofarblyuvatisya rіzniki barvnikami and especially the main component of the nucleus and otrimav the name "chromatin" (Flemming 1880).

Chromatin is a structural analogue of chromosomes and in the interphase nucleus is non-carrying DNA of the body.

Morphologically distinguish two types of chromatin:

1) heterochromatin;

2) euchromatin.

Heterochromatin(Heterochromatinum) is often condensed in interphase to chromosomes and is functionally inactive. This chromatin is more likely to be taken care of, and the same can be tested on histological preparations.

Heterochromatin is subdivided into:

1) structural; 2) optional.

Structural Heterochromatin represents chromosomes, which constantly change at the condensed state.

optional heterochromatin - the same heterochromatin, which decondenses and transforms into euchromatin.

Euchromatin- Ce decondensation in the interphase of chromosomes. Cerebral functionally active chromatin. This chromatin does not show up and does not show up on histological preparations.

Under the hour of mitosis, all euchromatin condenses as much as possible and enters to the chromosome warehouse. At the same time, the chromosomes do not win the same synthetic functions. In linkage with cym chromosomes, clitin can be found in two structural and functional states:

1) active (working), sometimes stink often or more decondensed and for their participation in the nucleus, the processes of transcription and reduplication are involved;

2) inactive (non-working, metabolically calm), if the stench is maximally condensed, the function of rozpodіl and transfer of genetic material in daughter cells.

In some cases, the number of chromosomes during interphase may be left in a condensed state, while it may look like smooth heterochromatin. For example, one of the X chromosomes of somatic cells female organism pіdlyagaє heterochromatization at cob stages of embryogenesis (pіd hour of crushing) it does not function. This chromatin is called state chromatin or Barr's chromatin.

In different clitins, the chromatin may have a different appearance:

a) in neutrophilic leukocytes - a type of drum stick;

b) in the epithelial cells of the mucosa - a type of napispherical glybka.

The designation of the state chromatin is selected for the establishment of the genetic state, as well as the designation of the number of X-chromosomes in the karyotype of an individual (the number of bodies of state chromatin is equal to +1).

With electron-microscopic studies, it was established that the preparations of the observed interphase chromatin can replace elementary chromosomal fibrils with a thickness of 20-25 nm, which are formed from fibrils with a thickness of 10 nm.

In chemical modification, fibril chromatin is foldable complexes of deoxyribonucleoproteins, which include:

b) special chromosomal proteins;

The ratio of the ratio of DNA, protein and RNA to become 1:1.3:0.2. Before DNA in the preparation, chromatin falls 30-40%. Longevity of individual linear DNA molecules are collapsing in non-direct boundaries and can span hundreds of micrometers and span centimeters. The total length of DNA molecules in all chromosomes of one human cell is about 170 cm, which is 6x10-12g.

Proteins of chromatin form 60-70% of dry matter and are represented by two groups:

a) histone proteins;

b) non-histone proteins.

Yo Histone proteins (histones) - puddles of proteins, which avenge the main amino acids (the main rank of lysine, arginine) are scattered unevenly at the visible blocks behind the old DNA molecule. One block can contain 8 molecules of histones, yakі utiruyut nucleosome. The size of the nucleosome is close to 10 nm. The nucleosome becomes a path of compactization and superspinalization of DNA, which leads to the shortening of the length of the chromosome fibril by about 5 times.

Yo Non-histone proteins to form 20% of the amount of histones and in the interphase nuclei to form the middle of the nucleus of the structural boundary, so as to form a nuclear protein matrix. The cei matrix is ​​the basis, as it determines the morphology and metabolism of the nucleus.

Perichromatin fibers have a thickness of 3-5 nm, granules have a diameter of 45 nm, and interchromatin granules have a diameter of 21-25 nm.

Yadrіshko

The nucleus (nucleolus) is the largest structure of the nucleus, as is well seen in a living, non-barred clitin and є similar chromosomes, one of the її loci with the highest concentration and active RNA synthesis in the interphase, but not an independent structure of the organelle.

Rozmir - 1-5 microns.

EForm - spherical.

The nucleus has a heterogeneous structure. Light microscopy shows a thin-fiber organization.

Electron microscopy reveals two main components:

a) granular; b) fibrillary.

Granular component representations by granules with a diameter of 15-20 nm, subunits of ribosomes mature. However, the granular component fills the small parts of the structure - nucleolonemy, zavtoshki close to 0.2 microns. The granular component of the periphery is localized.

fibrillar a component of ribonucleoprotein strands of ribosome progenitors, which are located in the central part of the nucleus.

The ultrastructure of the nuclei lie in the activity of RNA synthesis: with a high level of synthesis in the nucleus, they appear great number granules, when attached to the synthesis, the number of granules decreases and the nuclei are transformed into fibrillar strands of a basophilic nature.

Nuclear shell

The nuclear shell (nuclolemma) is composed of:

Physics of the atomic nucleus. kernel storage.

External nuclear membrane (m. nuclearis externa),

2. Inner membrane (m. nuclearis interna), as separated by perinuclear space and cisterna nuclear membrane (cisterna nucleolemmae), rim 20-60 nm.

The skin membrane has a thickness of 7-8nm. The nuclear membrane is shattered like an empty, two-balled bear, which is water-creaming instead of the nucleus in the cytoplasm.

Outer membrane of the nuclear envelope, since it is in direct contact with the cytoplasm of the cell, it has low structural features, which allows it to be carried to the moisture of the membrane system and the endoplasmic membrane. Such peculiarities can be considered: the presence of numerous polyribosomes on the lower side of the hyaloplasm, and the outer nuclear membrane itself can directly pass to the membranes of the granular endoplasmic membrane. The surface of the outer nuclear membrane in most creatures and growing clitins is not smooth and diversified in the cytoplasm in both bulbous and tubular worms.

Inner nuclear membrane bound to the chromosomal material of the nucleus. From the side of the karioplasm to the inner nuclear membrane, the ball of fibrillar lies like a ball, which is composed of fibrils, but not characteristic of all cells.

The nuclear shell is not suicile. The most characteristic structures of the nuclear membrane are nuclear pores. The nuclear pores are settled after the anger of two nuclear membranes. With this, rounded open openings (perforations, annulus pori) are formed, so that the diameter is close to 80-90 nm. Open the nuclear membranes of the backfilled folded globular and fibrillar structures. The congestion of membrane perforations of these structures has been given the name of the pore complex (complexus pori). The complex of pores is composed of three rows of granules according to the largest number of pieces near the skin row, the diameter of the granules is 25 nm, fibrillar growths come out of these granules. The granules are spread on the inter-opening in the nuclear membrane: one row lies on the side of the nucleus, the other on the side of the cytoplasm, the third one is near the central part of the pore. Fibrils, which enter the peripheral granules, can converge in the center and create, like a septum, the diaphragm across the pores (diaphragma pori). Razmіri hour at tsієї kіtini sound stable. The number of nuclear pyrs to be deposited depends on the metabolic activity of clitins: the more intensive synthetic processes in clitins, the more pyrs per unit surface of the clitin nucleus.

Functions:

1. Barrier - cremation between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, surrounding the free transport of macromolecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

2. Creation of the intranuclear order - fixation of the chromosomal material to the trivimir lumen of the nucleus.

Karyoplasma

Karioplasma is a part of the nucleus of the nucleus, in which the nuclear structure is scattered, it is an analogue of hyaloplasmy in the cytoplasmic part of the clitin.

Reproduction of clitin

One of the most important biological phenomena, which reflects the primordial regularities and є nevid'mnoy umovoy іsnuvannya biological systems for a long time to finish the 3rd hour of reproduction (reproduction) of their clitin's warehouse. Reproduction of clitin, zgіdno z clitin theory, zdіysnyuєtsya along the way under the vihіdnoї. This camp is one of the main ones in clitin theory.

Kernel (nucleus) clitin

CORE FUNCTIONS

Chromatin -

Chromosomes

Which ones to enter:

- histone proteins

- Small amount of RNA;

nuclear matrix

Consists of 3 components:

style of the nuclear envelope.

What is the core in biology: power and function

Internal turf (brush).

3. "Zalishkov" core.

Won is accumulated from:

- Zovnishnoi nuclear membrane;

Nucleoplasm (karyoplasm)- A rare component of the nucleus, in which chromatin and nuclei are scattered. To sweep the water that row

Yadrіshko

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Kernel (nucleus) clitin- system of genetic determination and regulation of protein synthesis.

CORE FUNCTIONS

● collecting and maintaining recession information

● implementation of recession information

The nucleus is composed of chromatin, nucleus, karyoplasm (nucleoplasm) and nuclear membranes, which form the cytoplasm.

Chromatin - tse zones of the schіlnoї speech in the nucleus, yak ho-

well spriymaє different barvniki, especially the main ones.

In clitins, which do not divide, chromatin appears in the form of globose and granules, which is an interphase form of chromosome backing.

Chromosomes– fibrils of chromatin, which are foldable complexes of deoxyribonucleoproteins (DNP), to the warehouse

Which ones to enter:

- histone proteins

- non-histone proteins - to become 20%, ce enzymes, improve structural and regulatory functions;

- Small amount of RNA;

- Small amounts of lipids, polysaccharides, metal ions.

nuclear matrix- є frame intranuclear system.

my, which is the basis for chromatin, nucleus, nuclear membrane. Tsya structural measure is the basis, which determines the morphology and metabolism of the nucleus.

Consists of 3 components:

1. Laminu (A, B, C) – peripheral fibrillar ball, sub-

style of the nuclear envelope.

2. Intra-wooden merezha (brush).

3. "Zalishkov" core.

Nuclear shell (cariolema)- Tse tunic, which makes the nucleus in the cytoplasm of the clitin.

Won is accumulated from:

- Zovnishnoi nuclear membrane;

- internal nuclear membrane, which includes the perinuclear space;

- a double-membrane nuclear membrane has a pore complex.

Nucleoplasm (karyoplasm)- A rare component of the nucleus, in which chromatin and nuclei are scattered.

Nucleus. Kernel Components

To sweep the water that row

differences and importance in their speeches: RNA, glycoproteins,

ions, enzymes, metabolites.

Yadrіshko- The most important structure of the nucleus, created by special cells - loops of chromosomes, which are called nuclear organizers.

You can see 3 components of the nucleus:

1. The fibrillar component is the primary transcripts of r-RNA.

2. The granular component is a collection of

chanuval subunits of ribosomes.

3. Amorphous component - nuclear organizer trays,

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The nucleus is the main regulatory component of the cell. Yogo Budova and functions.

The core is the obov'yazkova part of the cells of eukaryotes. This is the main regulatory component of clitin. Vono is responsible for the protection of the transmission of recessionary information, which is carried out by all exchange processes in the client . Chi is not an organoid, but a component of the cell.

The core is composed of:

1) the nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane), through the pores of which the exchange between the nucleus of the cell and the cytoplasm occurs.

2) nuclear sik, or karyoplasm, - on the other hand, is weakly fermented by the plasma mass, which stores all the nuclei of the clitin and avenges other components of the nucleus;

3) chromosomes, like in the nucleus, which are not subdivided, can be seen only with the help of special methods of microscopy. The cluster of chromosomes in clitiny is called up to ariotype. Chromatin on prepared preparations of clitiny is a merezhey of thin strands (fibril), small granules or globose.

4) one or more spherical bodies - nuclei, which is a specialized part of the clitinite nucleus associated with the synthesis of ribonucleic acid and proteins.

two stages of the core:

1. interfacial core can have multiple cores. shell-cariolema.

2. core at the bottom of the cell. є only chromatin in a different state.

the nucleus includes two zones:

1. intra-fibrillar-molecules of protein and pre-RNA

2. ovn_shnya-granular-form subunits of ribosomes.

The shell of the nucleus and two membranes separated by perinuclear space. Offensive stinks are permeated with numerous pores, zavdyaki like a possible exchange of speech between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

The main components of the nucleus are chromosomes made from DNA molecules and different proteins. In light microscopy, the stench of good memory is less than an hour of the client's podil (mitosis, meiosis). In cells that do not divide, the chromosomes look like long thin threads, spread over the entire volume of the nucleus.

The main functions of the clitin nucleus are as follows:

1. collecting information;
2. transfer of information to the cytoplasm for additional transcription, to the synthesis of portable information of ta-RNA;
3. transmission of information to daughter clitins during replication - splitting of clitin and nuclei.
4. regulation of biochemical, physiological and morphological processes in clitin.

At the nucleus replication- substitution of DNA molecules, as well as transcription– synthesis of RNA molecules on a DNA template. In the nucleus and synthesizing, RNA molecules recognize certain modifications (for example, in the process splicing from molecules of matrix RNA, insignificant, hollow spaces are included, after which they enter the cytoplasm . Ribosome folding it is also found in the nucleus, in special denunciations, as they are called nuclei. Compartment for the nucleus - karioteka - solutions for the rahunka of expansion and aggravation one by one of the cisterns of the endoplasmic border in such a rank that the subfolding walls for the rahunka of the narrow compartments of the nuclear membrane have settled in the nucleus, so that you can feel it. The empty nuclear membrane is called lumen or perinuclear space. The inner surface of the nuclear membrane is supported by the nuclear lamina- Zhorstkoy protein structure, made up of lamina proteins, to the attachment of a strand of chromosomal DNA. In some areas, the internal and external membranes of the nuclear tunic membrane become angry and so called nuclear pores, through which material exchange occurs between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

12. Two-membrane organoids (mitochondria, plastids). Їх budova that functions.

Mitochondria - the structure is rounded or stick-like, often galvanized, with a thickness of 0.5 microns and a dorsal sound up to 5-10 microns.

The shell of mitochondria is composed of two membranes, which are chemical warehouse, a set of enzymes and functions. Internal membrane I make it possible to use leaf-like (christi) or tubular (tubules) forms. Expanse, surrounded by an inner membrane, become matrix organelles. Grains with a diameter of 20-40 nm are visible behind the help of an electron microscope. They accumulate calcium and magnesium, as well as polysaccharides, for example, glycogen.
The matrix contains its own apparatus for the biosynthesis of protein organelles. Він representations 2-6 copies of calcic and reduced histones (like in prokaryotes) DNA molecules, ribosomes, a set of transport RNA (tRNA), DNA reduplication enzymes, transcription and translation of decay information. Head function mitochondria are converted into enzymatic synthesis of chemical reactions of energy (by way of oxidation) and accumulated energy in the form that is biologically vicorous (by way of synthesis of molecules of adenosine triphosphate -ATP). This process is called zagalom oxidized phosphorylation. Among the side functions of mitochondria, one can name participation in the synthesis of steroid hormones and active amino acids (glutamine).

plastidi – Tse napіvavtonomnі (may be appreciably autonomous from the nuclear DNA of clitiny) double-membrane organoids, characteristic of eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms. There are three main types of plastids: chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leukoplasts.The plastid congestion in klitz is calledplastidoma . Skins of these tsikh types for singing minds can go one to one. Like mitochondria, plastids attack the water molecules of DNA. That's why the stench of the buildings grows independently from the bottom of the cellar. Plastids are more typical than growing clitins.

Chloroplasts. The length of the chloroplasts is no more than 5 to 10 µm, the diameter is 2 to 4 µm. Chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes. The external membrane is smooth, the internal structure can be folded. The smallest fold is called t ilakoid. A group of thylakoids, placed on top of a pile of coins, is called g wound. The faces are connected one by one by confluence channels - lamellas. The thylakoid membrane contains photosynthetic pigment enzymes that ensure the synthesis of ATP. The head photosynthetic pigment is chlorophyll, which green colors chloroplasts.

Internal space of chloroplasts cool. In stromi є kiltsev goal of DNA, ribosomes, enzymes to the Calvin cycle, starch grains. In the middle of the cutaneous thylakoid there is a proton reservoir, there is an accumulation of H +. Chloroplasts, also like mitochondria, are built up to autonomous reproduction by a path folded in two. The chloroplasts of the lower roslins are called chromatophore.

Leukoplasty. The outer membrane is smooth, the inner membrane contains innumerable thylakoids. In the stroma and kiltseva "goal" of DNA, ribosomes, enzymes for the synthesis and hydrolysis of spare living speeches. Pigment_v_dsutn_. Especially rich in leukoplasts can be found in the cells of the underground organs of the plant (root, bulb, rhizomes, etc.) .). Amiloplasty-synthesize and accumulate starch , elaioplasty- Olii , protein plastics- Whites. In the same leukoplasty, different speech can accumulate.

Chromoplasts. The outer membrane is smooth, the inner one is either smooth, otherwise it forms single thylakoids. In stromi and kiltseva DNA and pigments - carotenoids, what to give to chromoplasts zhovte, red or orange zabarvlennya. The form of accumulation of pigments is: in the appearance of crystals, in the presence of lipid speckles and in. Chromoplasts are introduced to the final stage of development of plastids.

Plastidi can mutually transform one on one: leukoplasty - chloroplast - chromoplast.

Single-membrane organoids (EPS, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes). Їх budova that functions.

Kanaltsevaі vacuolar system Utvorennye spoluchennymi or okremimi tubular or flattening (cistern) empty, surrounded by membranes and clitiny, rozpovsyudzhuyutsya throughout the cytoplasm. The names of the systems are seen shortsі smooth cytoplasmic mesh. Peculiarities of budovi shorstkoy merezhі polygaє in polysomes attached to the її membranes. By virtue of this won, the function of synthesizing the first category of proteins is important, they are most importantly removed from cells, for example, they are secreted by cells. In the region of the short seam, proteins and lipids of cytoplasmic membranes are formed, as well as their folding. Shchіlno packed in a sharuvat structure of the cisterns short merezhi є dilyanki the most active protein synthesis and are called ergastoplasm.

Membranes of smooth cytoplasmic membranes help the policy. Functionally, the measure is associated with the exchange of carbohydrates, fats and other speeches of a non-protein nature, for example, steroid hormones (in the stalk ridges, kirk's balls of the supraspinal ridges). Through the tubules and cisterns, there is a movement of speech, the secretion of secreted mucilaginous material, as a route for synthesis into the packing area of ​​the granule. In litters of hepatic clitins, rich in structures of smooth merezhі, roiling and fluffy toxic speeches, deak licks (barbiturates). In the bulbs and tubules of the smooth rim of the transversely swarthy musculature, they are stored (deposited) with calcium ion, which plays an important role in the process of contraction.

Golgi complex-є a stack of flat membrane bags, as they are called cisterns. The tanks are completely insulated, one kind of one, and they don’t get stuck together. Along the edges of the cisterns, there are numerous tubes and bulbs. In the form of EPS, the vacuoles (bulbs) are ligated along with the synthesizing cavities, so they move to the Golgi complex and follow it. Speech, synthesized in the EPS, is folded and accumulated at the Golgi complex. Functions of the Golgi complex :1- At the cisterns of the Golgi complex, there is a chemical transformation away from the complex of speeches, which is up to the new EPS. For example, speech is formed, the necessary renewal of the cell membrane (glycoproteins, glycolipids), polysaccharides.

2- At the Golgi complex, there is an accumulation of speeches and their timchas "recovery"

3- Dissolved speeches are "packed" at the bulb (at the vacuole) and in this way they move around the clitin.

4- At the Golgi complex, lysosomes (spherical organoids with enzymes that are decomposed) become ubiquitous.

Lysosomes- other spherical organoids, the walls of which are made with a single membrane; take revenge on the literal(decomposing) enzymes. The lysosomes on the back, which were laced with the Golgi complex, are avenged by inactive enzymes. For singing minds, their enzymes are activated. When the lysosome is activated with a phagocytic or pinocytic vacuole, the herbal vacuole is established, in which the internal cleavage of various speeches is re-etched.

Functions of lysosomes :1- Zdiisnyuyut splitting of speech, fading after phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Biopolymers are split into monomers, which are found at the client's and vicarious for every need.

The core of that yoga structural component

For example, stinks can be used for the synthesis of new organic speeches, or they can be used for further splitting to extract energy.

2- destroy old, worn out, superfluous organoids. Splitting of organoids can be done under the hour of starvation of cells.

Vacuoles- spherical single-membrane organoids, which are reservoirs of water and speech in speech. To vacuoles one can see: phagocytosis and pinocytosis vacuoles, herbal vacuoles, bulbs, which are connected to the EPS and the Golgi complex Your main function transport of speeches along the clitin, zdiisnennya vzaimozv'yazku between organoids.

In clitiny roslin, the proportion of vacuoles is brought up to 90% total.

In a mature growing clitin, one vacuole occupies a central position. The membrane of the vacuole of a dewy clitin is a tonoplast; Functions of the vacuoles in the growing clitinae: the growth of the clitinous membrane in the pressure, the accumulation of various speeches, including the life cycle of the clitinae. Vacuoles supply water for photosynthesis processes. May enter:

- Spare speeches, yakі can win the clitina itself ( organic acids, amino acids, zucru, proteins). - speech, which is produced from the exchange of speech, clitin and accumulates in the vacuole (phenols, tannins of speech, alkaloids and other) - phytohormones, phytoncids,

- pigments (farbuyuchі speech), like to give clitin juice purple, red, blue, violet color, and sometimes yellow or cream. The very pigments of clitin juice are filled with flower pellets, fruits, root crops.

14. Nembrane organoids (microtubules, cell center, ribosomes). Їх budova that functions.Ribosome - Non-membrane organoid of clitin, which promotes protein biosynthesis. It is composed of two sub-units - small and large. The ribosome is made up of 3-4 molecules of r-RNA, which make up the framework, as many as dozens of molecules of different proteins. Ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleus. In clitin, ribosomes can be located on the surface of the granular EPS, or in the hyaloplasm of clitin in similar polysomes. Polysome - tse complex i-RNA and how many ribosomes, yakі zchituyut z it іnformatsiyu. Function ribosome- Biosynthesis of protein. As ribosomes are spread on the EPS, then the proteins that are synthesized by them are vicorated for the consumption of the whole organism, the ribosomes of haloplasma synthesize proteins for the consumption of the cell itself. Ribosomes of prokaryotes in others, lower ribosomes of eukaryotes. Such other ribosomes are found in mitochondria and plastids.

microtubules - Empty cylindrical structures of cells, which are formed from non-short-lived tubulin protein. Microtubules are not built until soon. The walls of the microtubules are made with 13 strands of tubulin protein. Microtubules grow in common hyaloplasmic cells.

Vії ta flagellum - Organoid rush. Head function - transferring the clitin or moving the air of the clitin navkolishnoї rіdini or particles. In a rich-clitinous organism, it is characteristic of the epithelium of the dichal pathways, fallopian tubes, and flagella - for spermatozoa. Vії ta flagellum breezes only with rosemary - flagellum doshі. In their bases - microtubules, expanded behind the system 9(2) + 2. Ze means that 9 subfolding microtubules (doubles) seal the wall of the cylinder, in the center of which 2 single microtubules are expanded. The support of the viy and jgutikov є basal tilets. The basal body has a cylindrical shape, made up of 9 triplets (triples) of microtubules, there are no microtubules near the center of the basal body.

Cl e exact center — The mitotic center, the constant structure of all creatures and other growing cells, determines the poles of the cell, what to divide (div. Mitosis) . The clitiny center is composed of two centrioles - alkaline granules with a size of 0.2-0.8 micron, roztashovanih under a straight cut one to one. When the mitotic apparatus is established, the centrioles diverge to the poles of the clitinum, indicating the orientation of the spindle under the clitinum. That's right K. c. name mitotic center, vіdobrazhuchi tsim yogo funkіonalno znachennya, tim more, scho less in deyaky kіtin K. ts. distribution at the її center. At the result, the development of the organism changes like a camp Do. c. in clitins, and a form of yogo. When rozpodіlі kіtinii dermal z dоchіrnіkh kіtini otrimuє kіlka tsentriole. The process of the current under-war is often seen as an example of the frontal battalion. Vyniknennya low pathological forms under the condition of the disease associated with an abnormal rosacea Do. c.

The skin atom is folded into nucleiі atomic shell, To the warehouse of which enter various elementary particles - nucleonsі electronics(Figure 5.1). The nucleus is the central part of the atom, which practically covers the entire mass of the atom and has a positive charge. The nucleus is folded protonsі neutrons, yakі є double-charging camps of one elementary section - Nuklon. Proton charge +1; neutron 0.

Core charge atom more expensive Z . ē , de Z– serial number of elements (atomic number) in the periodic system of Mendeliev, which is higher than the number of protons in the nucleus; ē - Electron charge.

The number of nucleons in the nucleus is called mass number of the element(A):

A = Z + N,

de Z- Number of protons; N- The number of neutrons in the atomic nucleus.

For protons and neutrons, the mass number is 1, for electrons 0.

Rice. 5.1. Budova atom

Zagalnopriynyat such a designation for any chemical element X: , here A- mass number, Z- The atomic number of the element.

Atomic nuclei of the same element can avenge the number of neutrons N. Such varieties of atomic nuclei are called isotopes which element. In this order, isotopes can be: the same atomic number, but different mass numbers A. The largest number of chemical elements and the sum of various isotopes, for example, isotopes of uranium:

.

Atomic nuclei of various chemical elements can have the same mass number BUT(with a different number of protons Z). Such varieties of atomic nuclei are called isobars. For example:

– – – ; –

atomic mass

To characterize the mass of atoms and molecules of vicorist, understand atomic mass M- The value is known, as it is determined by the date
up to the mass of the atom, the coal is taken up evenly m a = 12,000,000. For
absolute value of the atomic mass was introduced atomic unit
Masi(a.u.m.), as it is determined by the appearance to the mass of the atom, the carbon in the forward look:

.

The same atomic mass of an element can be defined as:

de M- Atomic mass of isotopes of the analyzed element. It makes it easier to dedicate the mass of the nuclei of the elements, elementary particles, particles - products of radioactive transformations too.

The defect of the mass of the nucleus and the energy of the linkage of the nucleus

The energy of the link to the nucleon- a physical quantity, numerically equal to a robot, as it requires the development of a distant nucleon from the nucleus without adding to its kinetic energy.

The nucleons are tied in the nucleus to the nuclear forces, as if they were signifi- cantly overturning the forces of the electrostatic shock that is between the protons. For the splitting of the nucleus, it is necessary to podolat qi forces, so as to expend energy. The creation of nucleons with the resolutions of the nucleus, navpak, accompanied by a change in energy, as they call energy linkage of the nucleusΔ W St:

,

de - So the ranks of the defect of the mass of the core; h ≈ 3 . 10 8 m / s - the speed of the light in the vacuum.

Energy linking the nucleus- a physical quantity, equal to the robot, which is necessary for the splitting of the nucleus into a single nucleon without the addition of kinetic energy.

When the nucleus is established, there is a change in the mass of the nucleus, so that the mass of the nucleus is less, the sum of the mass of the nucleons is lower, which is folded, and the difference is called mac defectΔ m:

de m p- Proton mass; m n- Mass to the neutron; m kernel is the mass of the kernel.

When passing into the kernel mass m nucleus to atomic masses of the element m but, this viraz can be written in the offensive look:

de m H - mass of water; m n-Mass of the neutron i m a is the atomic mass of the element, determined through atomic unit mass(A.u.m.).

The criterion for the stability of the nucleus is the stability of a new number of protons and neutrons. For the stability of the nuclei, the following is true:

,

de Z- Number of protons; A- The mass number of the element.

About 1700 types of nuclei are used per hour, only about 270 stable ones. Moreover, in nature, paired-paired nuclei are more important (that is, with a paired number of protons and neutrons), which are especially stable.

Radioactivity

Radioactivity- Conversion of non-stable isotopes of one chemical element into isotopes of another chemical element with sightings of some elementary particles. Distinguish: natural and piece radioactivity.

Up to the main views you can add:

- α-viprominence (disintegration);

- β-viprominence (disintegration);

- Spontaneous subdivision of the nucleus.

The core of the element that falls apart is called maternal, and the core of the element that is settled - daughter. Mimovilny decay of atomic nuclei follows the order of the advancing law of radioactive decay:

de N 0 - the number of nuclei in the chemical element in the ear; N- Number of cores per hour t; - this is the name of the "post-yna" disintegration, like a part of the nuclei that disintegrated in one hour.

The value of the return to “steady” decay characterizes the average life of the isotope. Characteristics of the resistance of the nuclei to decay є period of relapse, That is, an hour, by stretching some kind of pochatkov, the number of nuclei changes twice:

Zvyazok mizh i:

, .

In case of radioactive decay charge conservation law:

,

de - a charge of "splinters" that exploded abo wiyshli (disappeared); i mass number conservation rule:

de - the mass number of "ulamkіv" that have settled down (broken up).

5.4.1. α and β-decay

α decayє viprominyuvannya nuclei helium. Characteristic for "important" nuclei with large mass numbers A> 200 and charge z > 82.

The adoption rule for α-disintegration may look like this (the establishment of a new element is adopted):

.

; .

It is significant that α-disintegration (viprominence) has the most ionizing property, but the least penetration.

You can see it like this β-decay:

– electronic β-decay (β – -decay);

– positron β-decay (β+-decay);

- Electronic burrowing (k-burrowing).

β - -decay in case of superfluous neutrons from seeing electrons and antineutrinos:

.

β + -decay observed when there is an excess of protons from seeing positrons and neutrinos:

.

For electronic burying ( k- zakhoplennya) characteristic of the onset of transformation:

.

The adoption rule for β-disintegration may look like this (the establishment of a new element is being adopted):

for β - - decay: ;

for β + -decomposition: .

β-disintegration (viprominyuvannya) may have the least ionizing property, or the greatest penetration.

α and β-viprominence are accompanied by γ-viprom_vannyam, Yake is a modification of photons and is not an independent type of radioactive modification.

γ-photons are seen when the energy of the excitation of atoms is changed and do not indicate a change in the mass number A that charge change Z. γ-viprominence may be the most penetrating building.

Activity of radionuclides

Activity of radionuclides- the world of radioactivity, which characterizes the number of nuclear decays per hour. For the first amount of radionuclides at the first power plant in the tasks at the moment of the hour activity BUT asks the viewer:

de - estimated the number of spontaneous nuclear transformations (number of disintegrations of the nuclei), as in the case of ionizing vibration in the interval of an hour .

Mimovilne nuclear transformation is called radioactive decay.

The unity of the elimination of radionuclide activity is one turn second (), which has a special name becquerel (Bq).

Becquerel increases the activity of the radionuclide in the gel, for a duration of 1 sec. there is one spontaneous nuclear transformation.

Per-system activity unit – curie (Ku).

Curi - activity of the radionuclide in dzhereli, in yaky with a delay of 1 sec. expected 3.7 . 10 10 spontaneous nuclear transformations, so 1 Ku = 3.7 . 10 10 Bq.

For example, approximately 1 g of pure radium gives an activity of 3.7 . 10 10 nuclear fallouts per second.

Not all nuclei of a radionuclide decay at the same time. At the skin of one hour, a mimoly nuclear transformation occurs with a singing part of the nuclei. Part of the nuclear transformation for different radionuclides. For example, from a large number of nuclei, radium shomitis disintegrates 1.38 . part, and savage number radon nuclei - 2.1 . part. Part of the nuclei that decay in one hour is called constant decay λ .

From the point of view of the appointment, it is clear that the activity BUT connected with the number of radioactive atoms N dzhereli at the given moment to the hour

Hourly, the number of radioactive atoms changes according to the law:

, (3) – 30 rocks, surface radon or linear activity.

Selecting one pet activity is assigned to specific tasks. For example, the activity of the sample is expressed in becquerels per cubic meter (Bq / m 3) - volume activity. The activity in water, milk and other native areas is also expressed as the volume of activity, the amount of water in milk is reduced in liters (Bq / l). Activity in bread, potatoes, meat and other products is expressed as pet activity (Bq/kg).

It is obvious that the biological effect of the influx of radionuclides on the human body is due to their activity, that is, to the quantity of the radionuclide. Therefore, the volume of that pet's activity of radionuclides in food, water, food products, household and other materials is normalized.

Oskilki during the singing hour a person can be omitted by different ways (from the intake of radionuclides into the body to the level of oprominennia), all factors of the oprominennia are shown by a singing value, as they are called a dose of oprominennia.

An atom is made up of a positively charged nucleus and a few electrons. Atomic nuclei can expand approximately 10-14...10-15 m (linear expansion of an atom is 10-10 m).

The atomic nucleus is made up of elementary particles - protons and neutrons. The proton-neutron model of the nucleus was propagated by the Russian physicist D. D. Ivanenko, and later developed by V. Heisenberg.

Proton ( R) may have a positive charge, equal to the charge of the electron, and I'm calm t p = 1.6726∙10 -27 kg 1836 m e, de m e the mass of the electron. Neutron ( n) - neutral part with a mass of calm m n= 1.6749∙10 -27 kg 1839t e ,. The mass of protons and neutrons is often expressed in other units - in atomic mass units (a.u.m., mass unit, which equals 1/12 mass of an atom of carbon
). Masses of a proton and a neutron are equal to approximately one atomic mass unit. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons(Vid lat. Nucleus-kernel). Zagalne number nucleons in an atomic nucleus is called the mass number BUT).

The radii of the nuclei grow from the increase in the mass number, depending on the increase R= 1,4BUT 1/3 10-13 cm.

Experiments to confirm that the nuclei do not have sharp cordons. At the center of the nucleus, there is a thick layer of nuclear speech, and it gradually changes to zero for greater distances in the center. Through the distance of a clearly defined inter-nucleus of yoga, the “radius” stands out as it stands in the center, and the space of the nuclear speech changes into two. The average difference between the thickness of matter and the largest number of nuclei appears to be not easily spherical. Most of the cores are deformed. Often the kernels form the shape of twisted or flattened ellipsoids

Atomic nucleus is characterized chargeZe, de Zcharge number nucleus, which has an additional number of protons in the nucleus and varies with the ordinal number of the chemical element in Mendeliev's Periodic Element System.

The nucleus is denoted by the same symbol, as it is a neutral atom:
, de X chemical element symbol, Z atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus), BUTmass number (the number of nucleons in the nucleus). Mass number BUT approximately the weight of the nucleus in atomic mass units.

If the atom is neutral, then the charge of the nucleus Z determines the number of electrons in an atom. Vіd number of electrons to deposit їх rozpodіl behind camps in atoms. The charge of the nucleus determines the specifics of this chemical element, that is, the number of electrons in the atom, the configuration of the electronic shells, the magnitude and nature of the internal atomic electric field.

Nuclei with the same charge numbers Z, but with different mass numbers BUT(so with different numbers of neutrons N=A-Z) are called isotopes, and the nuclei are the same BUT, but let's change Z- isobars. For example, water ( Z= l) there can be three isotopes: H - protium ( Z=l, N= 0), H - deuterium ( Z=l, N= 1), H - tritium ( Z=l, N= 2), tin - ten isotopes and so on.

E, MeV

Equal energy

and watch out for transitions for the nucleus of the boron atom

Quantum theory strictly limits the values ​​of energy, which can be the mother of storage nuclei. The combination of protons and neutrons in nuclei can be less in the same discrete energy mills, attached to a given isotope.

If an electron moves from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, the difference in energy changes like a photon. The energy of these photons can be on the order of a few electric volts. For nuclei, the energy levels lie in the interval of 1 to 10 MeV. During transitions between equals, photons of greater energies (γ-quanta) are changed. To illustrate such transitions in fig. 6.1 five first core energy levels were induced
.Vertical lines indicate transitions. For example, a γ-quantum with an energy of 1.43 MeV is emitted when the nucleus changes to an energy of 3.58 MeV in a station with an energy of 2.15 MeV.

Atomic core
Atomic nucleus

Atomic core - the central part of the atom is already compact, in which practically the entire yoga massa and the entire positive electric charge is contained. The nucleus, priming near itself by the Coulomb forces of electrons near the body, which compensates for its positive charge, makes a neutral atom. The majority of nuclei have a shape close to spherical and a diameter of ≈ 10 -12 cm, which is several orders of magnitude smaller than the diameter of an atom (10 -8 cm). The density of speech in the nucleus is close to 230 million tons / cm 3.
The atomic nucleus was declared in 1911. as a result of a series of experiments with the dispersal of alpha particles with thin gold and platinum foils, victorious at Cambridge (England) under E. Rutherford's ceramics. In 1932 after seeing it in the same place by J. Chadwick, it became clear to the neutron that the nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.
(V. Heisenberg, D.D. Ivanenko, E. Majorana).
For the identification of the atomic nucleus, the symbol of the chemical element of the atom is drawn, to the warehouse of which the nucleus enters, and the upper left index of the symbol shows the number of nucleons (mass number) in the given nucleus, and the lower left index - the number of protons in the new one. For example, the nucleus of nickel, which can contain 58 nucleons, including 28 protons, is indicated. The core can also be designated as 58 Ni, or Nickel-58.

The nucleus is a system of space-packed protons and neutrons, which collapse with a speed of 10 9 -10 10 cm / s and are reduced by contracting and short-range nuclear forces of mutual gravity (the area of ​​\u200b\u200btheir diameters is surrounded by ≈ 10 -13 cm). Protons and neutrons can grow close to 10 -13 cm and look like two different particles become one, as they are called a nucleon. The radius of the nucleus can be approximately estimated by the formula R ≈ (1.0-1.1) 10 -13 A 1/3 cm, de A is the number of nucleons (the total number of protons and neutrons) in the nucleus. On fig. 1 shows how the thickness of speech changes (in units of 10-14 g/cm 3) in the middle of the nickel nucleus, which adds up to 28 protons and 30 neutrons, fallow in the middle of the nucleus (in units of 10-13 cm) to the center of the nucleus.
Nuclear interaction (interaction between nucleons in the nucleus) is blamed for the fact that the nucleon is exchanged with mesons. Tsya vzaєmodіya - showing more fundamental strong vzaєmodії between quarks, among them nucleons and mesons are added (so the very strength of the chemical bond in molecules - showing more fundamental electromagnetic forces).
The world of nuclei is more varied. There are approximately 3000 nuclei, which are divided into one or the other by the number of protons, or neutrons, or else. Most of them were taken away by a piece way.
Less than 264 cores are stable, that's it. do not look at the year any fleeting transformations, called disintegrations. Other important differences in the form of decay - alpha decay (release of alpha particles, that is the nucleus of the helium atom); beta-decay (one-hour changeover of an electron and an antineutrino or a positron and a neutrino, as well as the destruction of an atomic electron with a changeover of a neutrino); gamma decay (photon release) and others.
Different types of nuclei are often called nuclides. Nuclides with the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Nuclides with the same number of nucleons, but with different numbers of protons and neutrons, are called isobars. Light nuclei are approximately equal to the number of protons and neutrons. In important nuclei, the number of neutrons is approximately 1.5 times greater than the number of protons. The lightest nucleus is the nucleus of an atom in a single proton. The most important domestic nuclei (the stench is taken individually) have a number of nucleons ≈290. Of these, 116-118 protons.
Different combinations of the number of protons Z and neutrons correspond to different atomic nuclei. Atomic nuclei are used (tobto їх hour of life t\u003e 10 -23 s) to achieve a narrow range of changes in the numbers Z and N. With this, all atomic nuclei are subdivided into two great groups - stable and radioactive (unstable). Stable nuclei are grouped near the stability line, which is equal to

Rice. 2. NZ-diagram of atomic nuclei.

On fig. 2 shows the NZ diagram of atomic nuclei. Black dots show stable nuclei. The area of ​​expansion of stable nuclei is called the valley of stability. On the left side, in the form of stable nuclei, there are nuclei that are overwhelmed by protons (proton superfluous nuclei), the right-hand side - nuclei that are rewired by neutrons (superior superfluous nuclei). Colors seen atomic nuclei, revealed in a given hour. Їx is close to 3.5 thousand. It’s important that you can burn 7 - 7.5 thousand. Proton superfluous nuclei (raspberry color) are radioactive and transform into stable ones mainly as a result of β + -disintegration, the proton, which enters the nuclear warehouse when it transforms into a neutron. Neutron superfluous nuclei (black color) are also radioactive and are transformed into stable ones as a result of decay, with the transformation of a neutron nucleus into a proton.
The most important stable isotopes are lead (Z = 82) and bismuth (Z = 83). Heavy nuclei, in order of processes, β + and β - - decay of schiln, as well as α-decay (yellow color) and spontaneous podil, as they become their main channels of decay. Dotted line in fig. 2 naming the sphere of the possible foundation of atomic nuclei. The line B p = 0 (B p is the energy delivered to the proton) is between the sphere of the base of the atomic nuclei of the evil (proton drip-line). Line B n = 0 (B n is the energy of water-silicon neutron) – on the right (neutron drip-line). The positions of the cordons of the atomic nucleus are almost impossible, the shards of stench fall apart in a typical nuclear hour (~10 -23 - 10 -22 s) from nucleons.
With the joining (synthesis) of two light nuclei and splitting an important nucleus into two light fragments, great energy is seen. There are two ways of extracting energy - the most effective of all. So 1 gram of nuclear fire is equivalent to 10 tons of chemical fire. Synthesis of nuclei (thermonuclear reactions) is a source of energy. Neckerization (vibration) synthesis occurs when a thermonuclear (or so-called "water") bomb is fired. Kerovany (more) synthesis is the basis of a promising energy source, which is being developed - a thermonuclear reactor.
Nekerovaniy (vibukhovy) podіl vіdbuvaєtsya under the hour vibuhu atomic bomb. Kerovany has been used in nuclear reactors, which is the source of energy in nuclear power plants.
For a theoretical description of atomic nuclei, quantum mechanics and various models are victorious.
The nucleus can behave like a gas (quantum gas) and like a home (quantum home). A cold nuclear homeland can have the power of over-plyness. In a strongly heated nucleus, nucleons decay into their quarks. Qi quarks interact with the gluon exchange. After such a disintegration, the nucleon cluster in the middle of the nucleus transforms into a new state of matter - quark-gluon plasma.

The nucleus of an atom is made up of nucleons, which are divided into protons and neutrons.

Symbolic designation of the nucleus of an atom:

A is the number of nucleons, that is. protons + neutrons (or atomic mass)
Z is the number of protons (equal to the number of electrons)
N-number of neutrons (or atomic number)

NUCLEAR FORCE

Diyut mіzh usіma nucleons near the nucleus;
- forces of gravity;
- short-lived

Nucleons are attracted one to one by nuclear forces, which are not similar to gravitational or electrostatic ones. . The nuclear forces were already rapidly subsiding from the background. Radius їхної дії close to 0.000 000 000 000 001 meters.
For a small age, which characterizes the expansion of atomic nuclei, a special designation was given - 1 Fm (in honor of the Italian physicist Ege. Fermi, 1901-1954). Mustache kernels can expand a large number of farms. The radius of the nuclear forces is similar to the world of the nucleon, to which the nuclei are clumps of solid matter. Possibly, the greatest in earthly minds.
Nuclear forces are strong mutually. The stench of Bagatorazovo overturns the Coulomb force (at the same age). A short period between nuclear forces. With an increase in the number of nucleons, the nuclei become unstable, and more important nuclei are radioactive, and even more important ones can be destroyed.
Kіltsev kіlkіst elementіv і priroі - nasledok korotії ії nuclear forces.

Budova atom - Cool physics

You know you?

In the middle of the 20th century, the theory of the nucleus transferred the designation of stable elements from the serial numbers Z = 110 -114.
Dubna has the 114th element with an atomic mass A = 289, which is "alive" for only 30 seconds, which is a long time for an atom with a nucleus of such size.
Today, theorists are already discussing the power of over two nuclei with a mass of 300 and 500.

Atoms with the same atomic numbers are called isotopes: in the periodic table
the stench is roztashovanі in one kіtintsі (Greek іzos - rіvniy, topos - mіsce).
Chemical dominance of isotopes may be the same.
As for the elements in total in nature - close to 100, then for the isotopes - over 2000. Some of them are not stable, so they are radioactive, and they disintegrate, vipprominyuuchi raznі see viprominyuvan.
The isotopes of the same element behind the warehouse are ventilated only by a small number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Isotope water.

How to see the expanse of the atom human body those who are deprived can crawl into the eye of the head.

Dopitlivim

"Glіsuyuchi" cars

Like, crashing on a car on a wet road with a great swedishness, sharply galm, then the car will behave like a glider; tires yogo start tying with thin water, practically not sticking on the road. Why do you care? Why doesn’t the car start to wear on a wet road, to wind up like a galmo is not pressed? What kind of tread pattern is used, what changes the effect?

Appearing...
A small sprat of the tread appeared, which changed the "aquaplaning" ability. For example, a groove can bring water up to the rear point of contact of the tread with the road, the name of the water is called. Behind other, more drіbnіshi grooves, water can be brought in ubіk. Nareshti, small tread depressions can “wet” the water ball on the road, sticking up to a new one without a middle in front of the zone of the main contact of the tread with the road surface. In all situations, the task is to ensure that it is better to clean up water from the contact zone and prevent hydroplaning.