Entry

The coils of the Russian art are quivering from long ago. Long before Kievan Rus, ancient words were built in pagan temples, at the tree and stones they cut idols - Perun, Svarog and Veles, they made garnitures of bronze and gold. These "wild" tribes have created riches and their own artistic culture, which testifies to the miraculous talent of our distant ancestors and I live the tradition of the art of the coming centuries. Nayranishi monuments of Russian painting have not reached us. Ale came, starting from Kievan Rus, that they adopted and preserved the Russian artistic traditions of old and preserved them with a new zmist, even richly explained in the history of Russian and secular culture. Tom theme term paper Extremely relevant, practical and meaningful, and at a glance, following the artistic methods of Russian painting.

Object of study: mystetsky culture.

Subject of research: artistic culture of Old and Middle Russia.

Meta research: revealing regularities in the development of Russian artistic culture.

On the way to the set goal, the following orders were raised: dobir and analysis of literary dzherel; the manifestation of historical periods and the development of Russian artistic culture; a significant step in the injection of pre-Christian Russian artistic culture and the culture of Byzantium to the development of the painting of Old and Middle Russia; analysis of the creativity of prominent artists and painters of the dosledzhuvanny period of Russian artistic culture; molding visnovkіv, visnovkіv; a list of vikoristanih dzherel.

Follow-up methods: content - analysis, caution, comprehension, insight.

The course work was based on the exercises: M. Alpatov, G. Ostrovsky, V. Lazarev, V. Tyazhelov, O. Sopotsinsky.

В результаті проведених досліджень встановлено, що художня культура Стародавньої та середньовічної Русі сягає своїм корінням в культуру Русі дохристиянського періоду і збагатившись прийомами іконопису майстрів Візантії, інших народів і племен, створює нові художні школи, які відображають у своїй творчості етапи розвитку російської держави та суспільства.

Thus, the theme of the course work is analyzed on the basis of the analysis of literary sources and methods of sociological research.

Culture of Old Russia in the pre-Mongolian period

Injecting taste and newness of the pre-Christian period into the artistic culture of the Kiev state

artistic culture rus rubles

The Kievan state, which emerged in the 9th century, reached its might in the 10th-11th centuries. For Prince Volodymyr, who is alive for the first time in the 10th century, Russia received a christening from Byzantium. This act is a significant legacy for the further development of the old Russian middle power as a political, social, and cultural perspective. For Yaroslav the Wise (in the first half of the 11th century), the Kievan state turned into a mighty feudal state.

During the hours of Yaroslav's successors, the stepwise fragmentation of the Kievan state on the territory of the princedom began - a process typical for the early feudal powers. The lands of Novgorod, Rostov, Volodymyr, Polotsk, Smolensk, Galich and other places are becoming increasingly important in political and cultural life. However, this does not cause a decrease in the artistic equal of art, wanting to change the character of the yogi with a singing world. In the arts, there is a process of crystallization of the artistic forms of art, in which there are strong Russian ideals. Spryyavshi in Byzantium Christian religion, the Kievan power took the value that the leading power of Europe in the X-XII centuries took. Cultural ties with Byzantium are rich in what they called the appearance of an old Russian art. And yet, the pre-Christian period, with similar words, began to endure the rise of the mystic. Vono became the foundation for a further cultural development. Gnedich P. P. History of sciences from the most recent hours. - M: TOV Vid. budinok Letopis-M, 2000. - S. 123.

Trochy was saved as a reminder of painting to achieve the expansion of the Kievan state. І usampered cement mosaics and frescoes of Sophia of Kiev. The majestic embellishment of the temple as a whole follows the Byzantine architecture. Tse

not vipadkovo. Even the authors of mosaics, and paintings that cover the beast to the bottom are crypts, walls, stovpi, boules Greeks, wanting, without a doubt, the fate of the robots to embellish the cathedral of those Russian masters. Symbolizing the “heavenly church” and the “earthly church”, the mosaics and paintings have a rich “illuminating” function. The stench call to visually reveal the Evangelical legend, bring respect to the heavenly and earthly hierarchy. Ale, at the same time, Sophia had an accent, which was to say about the memory of the memory of the Byzantine system of painting. Characteristically unusual for Byzantium in Sophia, Kiev mosaics and frescoes, which, perhaps, continue the tradition of masonry decoration of the Church of the Tithes of the epoch of Volodymyr.

One of the central ones near the temple is the mosaic depiction of the Mother of God near the vvtary near the looking oranti - figures with raised hands. This image is attached to us in front of the respect of the entrance. Yogo meaning is richer. Vin symbolizes the heavenly church. At the same hour, the Bogomatir appeared as the ordering of the place - the capital of the Kiev state. Zreshtoyu, to play the role of defender of Kiev; її the gesture of oranti is not only a gesture of prayer, but the gesture of a warrior, like standing on the frontier of Kiev, like protecting your children. The image of the Mother of God of majesty and urochisty. Beautiful mosaic for a juvenile child. The monumental figure is given over to the darkness of the fire. At the same time, the merekhtinnya of mosaic smalt and gold smolderingly reminds her of the present, mystical character.

Ostrovsky G. Rozpovid about Russian painting. - M: Image. art, 1987. - S. 120.

In the numerical images of the mosaics and frescoes of Sophia of Kiev, the high moral ideal, which, without a doubt, maw for the people of this era, I will apply. The very ideal is given spiritual firmness, the stubbornness of thoughts, it is possible to instill in the house the straightforwardness of thoughts and the pragnia of the characters in the painting.

The stinks are not good in their perekonannya and hard in their fillings. It is powerfully so especially nobility, as if to speak about spiritual purity, that clarity. It is necessary to note the diversity of the characters of the saints, in addition to the charismatic figures. The Crimea of ​​religious plots, the painting of Sophia of Kiev to avenge the composition of the secular character. The stench is found on the walls of the exit hall. Here are images of buffoons, musicians, as well as igor at the Constantinople Hippodrome. Unfortunately, a group portrait of Yaroslav's motherland, which is located at the western part of the central nave of the temple, was saved badly. The inclusion of yoga in the painting of Sophia is a reminder of those that the artists of that time didn’t even shy away from the transmission of life’s realities, even if in such images they retraced the metaphor that inspired all the middle-class masters - show the “inner person”, that spark of the “divine” and for them the true, which is hidden in all people and which brings moral thoroughness. The mosaics of the Church of Michael the Archangel of the Michael Monastery (1111–1112) are the first stage in the development of Kiev painting. The composition "Evcharistia" - the communion of the apostles by Christ - attaches more freedom to the richly embroidered figures, lower it is possible to dance in a similar composition of Sophia of Kiev. Linear rhythm here is folded and fluttering. In the midst of Mikhailov's mosaics, the image of Dmitri Solunsky, the holy warrior, represents the ideal of a masculine and glittering face of that hour. Ostrovsky R. Decree. view. S. 127.

In this manner, the artistic culture of the Kievan state was not only the Russian culture of the pre-Mongolian period, but also the achievement of the Byzantine culture. In painting, there are no less religious motives and plots.

CULTURE OF PRE-MONGOLIAN RUSSIA (IX - COB XIII ST.)

I. CULTURE OF RUSSIA BEFORE THE MONGOLIAN INVASION (ZAGALNIYA). 1. Features of the development of Russian culture.

Culture for the people is a part of history. Її formation, further development is closely connected with these historical officials themselves, who add to the formation that development of the state of the country, її sovereignty, political and spiritual life of the soul. At the understanding of culture, everything that was created by reason, talent, handicrafts to the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, the look of the world, nature, human buttya, human visions, enters the understanding of culture.

a) The culture of Russia is shaped by the capital itself, as is the formation of Russian statehood. The people went to the people at once in a few lines - state, political, cultural. Russia took shape and developed like the middle of a great people for that hour, who are formed together from various tribes; like a power, life like a raging on the majestic territory. І the whole original cultural record of similar vocabulary became the epitome of a single Russian culture. Vaughn developed like a culture of all similar words, saving from that hour its own regional rice - one for Podnіprov'ya, іnshі - for Pivnіchno-Skhіdnoї Rusі toshcho. The development of Russian culture was also influenced by the fact that Russia was developing as a sovereign power, open to all internal tribal patrimonials, as well as to foreign tribal inflows. І shlo tse glibini vikiv. Among the foreign cultures of Russia, as a tradition, let’s say, glades, northerners, Radimichis, Novgorodian words, other descendant Slavic tribes, and influx of suddnіh peoples, from which Rus exchanged virobnics, traded, fought, reconciled with the Finno-Ugric tribes, Balts, Iranian, other word-Yan peoples and powers. At the hour of its sovereign formation, Russia recognized the strong influx of the state of Byzantium, as its hour was one of the most cultural regions of the world. Henceforth, the culture of Russia was formed on the cob as synthetic, tobto. like a splash of different cultural trends, styles, traditions.

At once, Russia did not just blindly copy other people's infusions and recklessly stumbled on them, but stagnated to its own cultural traditions, to its own people's message, that it was to build up spirits from the depths, to understand the world of wisdom, its own manifestation of beauty. Therefore, in the rices of Russian culture, we constantly stick not only with the infusions of calls, but with our hour of significant spiritual transformation, their constant breaks in an absolutely Russian style. Even though the influx of foreign cultural traditions was the strongest in the places, as they themselves were centers of culture, the most advanced rice for their time, then the population was more important than the preservation of the old cultural traditions, which were tied from the depths of the historical memory of the people. In the villages and villages, life flowed at an improved pace; b)

By the richness of the fates of Russia, Russian culture - folk art, art, architecture, painting, arts and crafts - developed under the influx of pagan religion, pagan light-gazer. Because of the praises of Russia of Christianity, the camp has changed dramatically. The first for all new religion claimed to be those who would change the light-seeing people, their adoption of the whole life, and, therefore, the manifestation of beauty, artistic creativity, aesthetic infusion.

However, Christianity, having put a strong influx on Russian culture, especially in the fields of literature, architecture, art, literacy development, school education, libraries - in those areas, as it closely connected with the life of the church, with religion, could not help the people Russian culture. For a long time in Russia, the dvovirstvo was saved: official religion, as it prevailed in the places, and paganism, as it went into the darkness, ale, as before, it fell in the faraway parts of Russia, especially at the brewery gathering, saved its own positions. The development of Russian culture has shown the duality of the spiritual life of society, of the people's way. The pagan spiritual traditions, folk at their core, gave a deep impact on the development of Russian culture of the early Middle Ages.

Under the influx of folk traditions, pіdvalin, zvichok, under the influx of the people's light, the church culture and religious ideology were filled with new light. Суворе аскетичне християнство Візантії на російському язичницькому грунті з її культом природи, поклонінням сонцю, світлу, вітру, з її життєрадісністю, життєлюбністю, глибокою людяністю суттєво змінилося, що знайшло відображення у всіх тих галузях культури, де візантійський, християнський у своїй основі культурний вплив особливо great. Nevipadkovo at the rich church monuments of culture (for example, the works of church authors) is full of svіtskі, worldly mirkuvannya and vіdbitok suto worldly passions. And it’s not unusual that the pinnacle of the spiritual achievement of Ancient Russia, the genius “Word about Igor’s Departure,” is all permeated with pagan motives, let’s say lower. in)

The same is the synthetic of the davnoorusko culture, the belonging of the support on the people's vitoki is folk of the folk, the bagat-abstract of the schematic words, the binding of the Christian scenes of the sophisticated. Її characteristic riceє exercising monumentality, scale, figurativeness in literary writing; nationality, integrity and simplicity in art; vitonchenist, profoundly humanist cob in architecture; softness, life, kindness in painting; constantly beating the pulse of shukan, sumniviv, predilections in literature. And above us, the anger of the creator of cultural values ​​from nature was great; It’s not like I’m new again, one of the favorite images of the Russian church and culture, becoming the image of Saints Boris and Glib, people-lovers, non-resistors, who suffered for the unity of the country, who took torment for the sake of people. The features and characteristics of the rice culture of Old Russia did not appear at once. At their main virazas, stinks developed for a long time. Ale potim, having already seen the more less tired forms, for a long time and everywhere they saved their strength. And then, if the united Russia politically fell apart, the spіlnі risi of the Russian culture appeared in the culture of the neighboring princedoms. Irrespective of political problems, of mystical peculiarities, but all the same, the same Russian culture X - on the cob of the XII century. The Mongol-Tatar invasion, the onset of the residual disintegration of the Russian lands, their subordination to the sovereign powers interrupted the whole day for a long time. G)

The largest memory of rice from the ancient Russian culture was panuvannya in its religion, piercing all spheres, it acted as an integrating element, gave its singing strength. The activity of the church was one of the most important factors, as it was safe and supported by the panuvannya of religious ideology. The steps of the panuvannya of religion in culture were rich in which it began with the strength and influx of the church in all spheres of suspenseful life, which in the first black lay in the nature of the spirit between the church and the state.

An unequivocal opinion on nutrition about the infusion of the church into the cultural and historical process, about the assessment of cultural activity cannot be buti. On the one hand, the church stimulated the development of other spheres of culture (writing, architecture, painting, etc.), victorious arsenal of tools for the promotion of religious ideology. On the other hand, under the order of these spheres of culture to the interests of the church, the establishment of the most powerful control and regulation allowed the development to be fettered. Evaluation of the role of the Church in the development of culture is due to concrete-historical, but it cannot be the same unambiguous in terms of age until different periods. The flooring is a significant place, as religion occupied it in the old Russian culture, but it did not lead, however, to a new and inseparable panuvannya of the church in this sphere of life of the soul. II. LANGUAGE. 1. Mythology of words.

The mythology of similar words acted as an important warehouse variant of their religion - paganism. In the history of Old Russia, paganism is called religious worship, rites and traditions that evolved before the adoption of Christianity.

Mythological evidence is the basis of the most important religious manifestations of the words of the Jansk paganism: about the miraculous oblashtuvannya of the world by the gods and the first ancestors; about the divine presence in nature, about the human share, that suspіlnі do right; about the hierarchy of the gods, as we thought before the family, as a family ordering of the younger generation of the gods to the elder; about post_yny supranatural movement of forms of life - in potoybіchchya and back, from the human camp in zoomorphic and so on. Nareshti, at the fabric of paganism, a mythological idea of ​​dualism was woven with a red thread - everything (and nature, and human beings) is permeated with the struggle of light, good and dark, evil cobs.

Mythological images of the gods formed the pantheon - divine spirituality. The Slovyanin-pagan piously believes in the reality of the foundation of his gods. One old proverb saved the words of Prince Volodymyr, savage to the Varangian Olav: "I ask you to honor the gods and tidy up yourself in front of them; I'm afraid that the stench will spill on you the taste of your raging anger and zhorstokostі" ("Olav Trigveson's Saga"). The gods, like the ancestors of their own cloisters, saw to keep order in the world, acted as a guarantor of the dominance of the ancient suspenst.

From the mythological divisions of the dark forces, paganism formed hordes of demons - evil spirits.

Vіdkritі old-time people in the sight of religious knowledge, the myths were accepted in the cultures of the past as a priestly opovіdі. The sacred halo of the most important myths was supported by the same time, that rich myths were mali by their direct continuation of the ritual, priesthood, which played the plot of the myth. b)

The remembrance of the people was full of manifestations of the evil and good spirits of nature, the opportunity for nature with additional spells, serpents, propitiatory sacrifices and the entire ritual of magical deities. Image-creating mythology and folklore were inextricably linked with pagan manifestations.

Everywhere, spreading, the bedrooms of the dead and the walls above the funeral bags of the great earthen pits - mounds sounded. Faith in the sweating light was seen by tsomu, who made speeches with the dead; For the protection against evil forces (upirіv, lisovikіv, zlodіy), amulets from vovchih and vedmezhih teeth were implanted, slіvnі snakes were stuck, magical signs were introduced into the ornament. Narodzhennya, vesіllya, death usі tsі podії u zhittі were accompanied by incantation rites.

The head deities of the words were: the deity of the all-world - Rid, the deity of the sun - Dazhdbog, the goddess of the earth, the god of thinness - Veles, the god of fire - Svarog, the god of thunder - Perun.

In addition, there were impersonal ancient deities. The house was considered sacred, or pich, as a symbol of this. Fire was prayed under the comir. Near the villages stood idols, like deities, like "all the world" they made sacrifices. The gods were treated to specially prepared rams and tabiks, moreover, those who made sacrifices themselves took the fate of the living sacrificial creatures. Vvazhalis sacred haї, rivers, lakes. In addition, a sanctuary was founded among the skin tribe, where members of the tribe converged on a particularly holy tract for the execution of important celebrations. 2. Calendar rites that is holy.

a) caroling.

The most important in Russia pagan rites and holy buli zlitі іz zemlebrskomu pratsey, іz life of nature, and also, іz mythological isolation of natural forces.

The people of Kolyada, mythological origin, disputed with Makosh, ran hour after hour for the "people" of the Sun with the winter solstice. Participants in the rite of caroling sang songs that they glorified Kolyada, walked like bugs, prayed to the rulers of health, I give birth to wealth, the offspring of advancing fate. For the help of carolers, the masters of wine were munching their natural gifts - the victim of Kolyad was killed. They sang the bagatty, and merrily sang, as they accompanied the dances of the mummers, the hedgehog was chosen collectively. It was supposed to sound 24 breasts (for the old style).

Winter Christmas time was commemorated to the carols - the ancient words are sacred to the cob of the New Rock, like it was from 25 breasts to 6 sichnya (for the old style). What is the essence of yoga?

The sun, which was gaining strength, announced the awakening of the earth, the rebirth of nature. The old-time diggers, inconspicuously tying their pracey to nature, believed that, by helping rich people in ritual action, stench can help kinship. Even people and nature, zgіdno z їkhnіm svetoglyadom, - two parts of one whole, and the rite - zasіb spoluchennya between them.

Obov'yazkovі svyatkovі іgry, merry fun, rassna їzha i hmilnі napoi awakened life energy in people, yak, on їkhnє perekonannya, was angry with the energy of generosity, which blames, podvoyuyuchi її.

The other side of the holy rituals is the fortune teller. I wanted to recognize the skin, which would be a blessing: we’re born, we’ll clear up for ailments, we’re generous with fun. It was important that you tell the holy witches about obov'yazkovo to dream.

b) Maslyana.

For example, birch, at the period of the spring equal day, oil was celebrated. Maslyana - sacredly seeing off winters and springs. The indispensable companion of this spring saint was milk, butter milk. With their form, the stench symbolized the sun. Thousands of years ago, the type of mlints was closer to the most recent schematic image of Sontsya - they were baked on round clay pans with jagged edges and an embossed middle cross.

Maslyana herself hovered above the merriment, disguise, covered with buttery milkshakes, Maslyana herself - separating the end of winter and the ear of the fruiting season. In the holy place, she was present at the sight of the fallen, dressed in a woman's attire. The festivities began with the rituals of calling for that zustrichi Maslyanoy. Well, the festivities ended with the ritual burial of Maslyanoy - the opudal was spat abo, ripped, scattered across the fields, buried. Having marked the coming of spring, having transferred her strength to the fields, Maslyana is now small to calm down until the coming fate. in).

Before the spring rites, they prepared ahead of time: they hung towels with images of the goddess of birth Makosha, women in childbirth, horses, cranes and other birds. The shirts were covered with a rose-lined ornament. Spring rites could not do without fermented eggs. The tradition of painting eggs on the porch is one of the most ancient environments that have been preserved until now. The painted egg was an important attribute of ceremonies, that the last hour (approximately from the 10th century) sounded like specially prepared ceramic embellished eggs - Easter eggs. It was important that the ritually rozfarbovane eggs may have an invincible power: they can heal the sick, or induce to extinguish the fire, which has become a blow of a blisskavka.

They started spring rituals and started the summer of "green Christmas time", or Rusal. The stench fell on the end of the grass (in different months they assigned their own term). For a farmer, this is a critical hour - everything that a moment, having grown wine in the fields, throwing grain gave way, now everything lay in nature, and therefore, in the form of a bag that controls the natural elements of nature.

The look of the harvester turned to the watery surface - to the rivers and lakes, the dzherel of the fertile dew. And the soul to the mermaids, Volodarok water. And at the same time they minted not only windings and steps, but also more watering with a healthy water, which sprinkled a head of bread.

Mermaid ritual round dances and songs were accompanied by beats of a tambourine, sharp sounds of a flute. With turns and strokes, penetrating wiguks, the participants incited themselves with a camp of extreme awakening. Such a mass riot was guilty of turning the respect of mermaids and vimanity їх з vir. d) Yarilin day.

A good harvest laying down not only in the form of a deadly crop, but also in the sleepy warmth. That part of the "green Christmas time" were two "fires", sleepy saints - Yarilin's day (4 cherries according to the old style) and Ivan Kupala (24 cherries according to the old style), the date of the summer solstice.

Yarilo buv the god of visionary abo spring sun, the god of lust and love, the god of the virobnik and the patron of creatures, the virobnik of roslin, the god of strength and goodness. e)

Kupala is the deity of the words of the Yang mythology, connected with the cult of the sun. Under the hour of the holy one, it was a lyalka or a disgrace (human, and sometimes a woman’s status). I will decorate it with the symbol of holy buli kvіti ivan-da-mar'ya. Zgіdno z povіr'ami, in the night on Ivan Kupala, a fiery zabarvlennya miraculous flower of fern was released - "feathery color", which showed the place of buried treasures. Chaklunsky chari otochuvali tsyu kvіtku, to know її i vіdkriti belongings was respected by the right mayzhe impossibly. Particularly trustworthy and reckless broke at night to the fox. Words from mouth to mouth were passed down among the people about such simpletons.

Evenings on Ivan Kupala with a magical rite of making "living fire" began a smutty action: in the fire, which was warm, the priests of the bagattya spat, and the most incendiary people started stribati through them. Kozhen, having jumped to the top of the wind, more enchanting rank in the height of the haircut lay the height of the khlibiv. Around the corner there were round dances.

The coming round of agrarian calendar holy and rites of timing until the hour of the harvest of the birth and the cob of yoga processing. The boules are especially significant: holy "first fruits" (cob of sickle); vshanuvannya Rod that childbirth, if the bread is already zipani in zasіki (the hour of the "woman's lit", from the end of sickle to the middle of spring); cob spinning flax (zhovten).

3. Sanctuaries. a)

For the administration of rites victorious, as a rule, special places - sanctuaries, in which, for rituals, deities and spirits lingered.

At the skin booth there were sacred places for the administration of domestic rituals. In addition, the word'yansk pohovannya guessed after its obshtuvannyam life's mansion, sauntered like a sacred place, the ancestral home.

For the administration of the sacred priesthoods, the people gathered on the prime plots of fields of water and river banks, white streams, and especially often - near the riverside.

They built and specially clad the sanctuary of the temple. Great temples sound small the shape of a rounded maidanchik, protected from the sides with a moat shaft. In the middle, in the very center, statues of pagan gods were placed, and trochs in the distance, imovirno, were used for sleeping ritual banquets. The participants in the rites shone and were "cleansed" by the light of the great sacred bagats, like they spat near the sanctuary.

Before hostile temples of this kind lay the sanctuary of Perun near Novgorod. Archaeologists have revealed the numerical remains of the ancient pagan sanctuaries - the settlement "Grudok" near the pool of the Middle Desna, the temple on the top of the Old Kiev mountain above the Dnipro. It is characteristic that a lot of great temples were roztashovuvalis on pіdnesennyah and sauntered pagans like a mіstsya nezvychaynі, svjatnі. III. MATERIAL CULTURE.

1. Craft.

Russian craftsmen of the X-XIII centuries made their great contribution to the development of the culture of old Russia. Thousands of cousins ​​along the Dnipro and along the ilmen, along the Volz and Ots, plows were forged for the field of irrigation, hundreds of zbroyarivs prepared zbroy, yak defeated the nomads-stepoviks, vyzantiitsiv, nimtsiv and poles, and in the jewelry maisternyh maistery "nazery" made gold embellishing the filigree, carving and unfading enamel.

The history of the old Russian craft is seen behind two divisions: materials from the rural craft have gone to the first one, and behind the Russian craft to the other. A lot of technical priyomіv, vіdomih mistu XI-XII st. a lot of types of speeches were used less in the city and less in the village.

1.1 Silske craft.

Zі sprostanni suspіlnogo podіl pratsі same forgers became the first remіsniki-fahіvtsy, the very people honed hundreds of different legends and poіr'їv: "forger - chaklun, cunning" knew under the intercession of the Russian Hephaestus - the god Svarog and exultation of ailments, power of merriment, fortune-telling, unclean forces from the village. In epic tales, the forger himself is the dragon's surmounter - the Serpent-Gorinich, which he chains for language. - material.

At their right, the forgers vicorated swamp ore, which covered 18 to 40% of the flood. Zalizo was taken in small doses, sufficient only for preparing, for example, knives, chisels, arrows, sickles and other equally small objects.

For an hour, the formation of the words of the Jansk tribal splits, that cob of the establishment of the Kievan power of metallurgy on the right, already had a second confirmation. The special furnaces appeared, the fault between the dugouts, and the quarry and forge of the hall became the right of the special mastrіv.

The whole process of preparing metal speeches breaks down into the next stages: 1) the appearance of rudi; 2) front trim; 3) smelting of ore ("varіnnya zaliza"); 4) forging screams; 5) hot brew for tasting the bazhanyh virobiv.

Most of the ore is deposited on the days of pain and lakes; її rozvіduyut with a gostri with a pole or with a saline probe, and with scoops with a long handle from the flesh of the chovnіv.

Otriman's ore was washed, then it was brought to the settlement and it was given a front cut, which was crushed, lightly boiled, so that it had absorbed the process of oxidizing the hall. The most foldable and the most far right was the smelting of the bay from the ore, which was carried out for the help of the orphan process. The remaining stage of the orphan process - the forging of the cry - leads us back to the offensive stage of metal processing - to the blacksmith's right.

The technique of manual forging has changed little since the time of pre-Mongol Rus (XIX century). The right old cousins ​​seem to be rich. At quiet slopes, if they wafted, the stench stumbled, or rather the rampart itself, on the edge of the settlement, or the wind rushed beyond the rampart. For the rozіgіvannya of the bay, I forged the necessary boon horn from the good fortification of the duvannyam farm.

For roasting the baked metal from the hearth and matting the yogo on the forge, pliers were used (they call them "vyluchalo" - in the case of the words "vyluchati", vityaguvati). The pliers fought in two halves, creaking in the air, their form of rіzn: one of them was attached for drawing and trimming of small objects, and the other was making special hooks on the tips for trimming wide and massive speeches and larger roses of the muffled parts of the cliches. Rozpechene dobіla zalizo was put on kovadlo and zaznaval kuvannya.

The forge was vibrated with a hammer ("Mlat", "olmat", "kovaldo", "sledgehammer", "cue", and "mallet" - a wooden hammer from modern carpenters). Fallow in the recognition, threshing boules of various vags and forms - in the important and massive hammers at the handy farrier - hammering down to small hammers, with which the forger wielded himself, or without intermediary hitting the hall, or putting his hammer (pіdbіgaynik, storeroom) on blow, and beating the hammer with his important hammer, handy.

Kovaly went into the forging of the shoulder blades with long shoulder blades up to 1 m long; rozplyuschuvat forging zalizo (when prepared frying pans) stench could be up to 30 cm in diameter. The technicians of the kitchen were divided.

Before speeches, which are the simplest in terms of preparation, it is necessary to bring lower, hoops and bows of shat, flowers, sickles, scythes, chisels, plows, knives, awls, pokers, honeysuckles, shovels and frying pans. All these flat objects did not require special tools and could be made without a hand-held farrier.

To the other group, it is necessary to add speeches that meant zvaryuvannya, for example: lansyugs, door breaks, piers of the ring in the belts and in the beam, wood, flint (fragment), sweats, prisons.

With the onset of a technical technique, there was a chop of a chop for cutting a hole. This moment of buti zastosovaniya only when the work of both forgings was done, for that it was necessary, in a way, to trim with pliers the openings of the cloaks of the hall, which, with the great sizes of those forgings, it was not easy, in a different way, to trim and straighten the ruble, in a third, to beat chopped with a hammer. The chisel zastosovuvalosya when vibrating vushkіv for vukhan, ploughshares for cox, teslіv, motikіv, shikovin (hinges) of doors. We will most fold the bulk of the preparation of juice, spears, hammers and locks.

Long-standing Russian farriers made various gvinti, but they robbed them not in a cut, but in a way of twisting a choti-cut shear. The Gvinti, who came out, were obviously sitting in the tree, lower were the beautiful flowers. Castles were built on top of the forger's art.

At the rural forges of the XI-XIII centuries. practiced two farriers, one as the main master, the other assistant. The stench served all the needs of the nearest villages. Guidance range kovalskih virobіv vycherpuє mayzhe the entire village inventory, the necessary budіvnitstvа house, silskogo gospodarstvo, polyuvannya i navit defence.

A number of blind virobs were found to have impersonal bronze, medium and silver embellishments, so we can talk about the foundation of craftsmen-jewelers.

Judging from the data of the 12th-13th centuries, the blacksmith and the jeweler were one and the same. Prepared embellishment, just like the low galluses of the Russian craft, unfortunately, does not have a broken history for the epoch of the VII-VIII centuries.

The most friendly material for those who have been buried with burial pits is not familiar to us, but it is familiar to those who look at the shapeless zlitkiv.

Materials.

Most of the technical techniques of old Russian "smiths in midi and sribles" claim their roots in the first century of our yeri. In X-XIII Art. you can signify the great resemblance of the vine and the great diversity of forms.

The material for embellishment was copper, silver and various alloys; there is no gold at the rural mounds.

At a glance, the Russian embellishments of these alloys were divided into two groups: following the color of gold (with the addition of alloys in midi) and imitating silver (bronze with a great amount of tin, or alloy midi with silver "Bilkon", or silver). There was no gold, no srіbla, no midi in the borders of those Russian lands - all the metal was imported from the dry lands.

It is necessary to put a littia in the middle of various technical approaches of old Russian jewelers.

The metal was melted in clay crucibles for the help of a farm, which increased the temperature of the furnace. After melting, the metal was scooped up from crucibles with an earthenware spoon, which is small called “lyalka”, like with metal they were heated in the half-light, and then the metal was twisted into a livar form. If the form was flooded, then a metal virib was lifted from it, which exactly repeated the form.

A lot of forms are one-sided, that is. such that they hid before the beast with a smooth tile of vape. Zavdyaki tsyomu the front side of the object was embossed, and the reverse side was smooth.

In order to make it look like an openwork pіdvіska with slits in the middle, it was necessary when preparing the form to fill it in nіy short-term mіstsya, de vinnі buti be empty.

Even if they are not pierced on the form, the mass will constantly stick to the overhead cover of the form and the metal will not penetrate there. The livar forms were cut from soft rocks to vapnyak, piskovik, and slate. A lot of speeches to celebrate the enemy were prepared with a stamp or a path without a middle cut of a metal cutter.

For example, a seven-bladed ridge of the so-called Vyatitsky type. The body of the yogo, transversely, lithium, and the ornament on the shield of applications in such a rank that it establishes a series of thin, eroded lines, nibbling at the metal with a gostry cutter.

The technique of this casting was based on the fact that the clay of the soft form was stagnant here, as it more accurately conveyed all the details of the work to the original, in order to break the form.

For the help of different types of jewelry, jewelers prepared even richly different objects to decorate.

On another place after the littia, it is necessary to put a forge and a carving of colored metals. Principal vіdmіnіst vіd kuvannya zhіza polagє in that scho, copper and їkh alloys are forged much easier and poddayutsya navit cold kuvanu.

At the bathhouses, there is a thin forging of silver drіt and thin leaves of srіbla. Flattening in the leaves of the sreblo (or mid) went to different types: chelle (or vinochki), plate bracelets, forging screens, an eyelet for attaching a pidvisok, etc.

For the kuvannyam, deaks were made to see the silver hryvnias, bracelets, headbands, rhombus shields of the kilts and others.

The carving of thin metal sheets was rarely stagnant, only in the simple forms of a dotted visor, which goes along the edge of the stem or through a sprat of indented lines.

Sometimes the ornament is applied with a chisel, which makes the shape of a small chisel, turning from one kut to another master, having trimmed a zigzag-like line on the surface of the metal, engraving with a chisel and viewing whether it is a small little one. Particularly rich in various designs, on some of them there are circles, lines drawn by a gear wheel and zigzags, and simple carvings, and a deep lithium ornament.

Then after a littya, that kuvannya is important є virobnitstvo drot.

In small kіlkostakh, drіt vykoristovuvavsya like embellishment, and th in pobutі.

The live knives were wrapped with a dart, rings were spun around the dart, as well as bracelets, folded rings and a number of other embellishments.

For the preparation of a medny or silver-drawn dart, the bouw needed so caliber ranks, or "dragged" - a dowel with a low drilled opening, which scrambled to end; dermal sus_dnє otvіr small diameter smaller, lower in front.

For dragging the dart, a silver or a medium haircut was forged in front, yoga was played, and dragged into the largest opening. Then they dragged it through a smaller vein, and so doti, the docks did not cut off the drіt of the required diameter.

Mіdny drіt with a diameter of up to 2 mm went into the rim with a length of up to 150 cm.

At the bottom of the regions of the right bank of the Dnipro, we see a thin dart carcass, on which large grains of metal are attached. Namist qi bear the mental name of "Minsk", the stench often rushes in the rural barrows of the Dregovichi, the Drevlyans and Volynians.

Pottery on the right in the Slavic lands has a long tradition, as we know from the Neolithic. At the turn of the IX - X Art. it brought new technology and turned into a craft.

At an early hour, judging by the fingerprints, the pottery was prepared by the woman on the right. Letter monuments of Kievan Rus speak exclusively about potters - people.

Clay was made for the preparation of miners, and clay was called "skudel", "zd" or "zden". The clay in front of the judge's slabs was specially shaped, drenched with water, and resolutely tumbled.

The casting of the judge, independently of the yoga molding method (from the hands or on the stake), was carried out in a string, jug method.

Clay spread out on long rollers, narrowed at tsoma, and then the potter laid these rollers in a spiral, narrowing with the bagged shape of the judge. After that, the rollers were pressed together, the seams between them were overwritten and the judge was left with a residual improvement. Possibly, the flat bottom of the judge was sticky at times.

Sticky utensils for Kievan Rus are not typical, because at this hour of wine they have already been replaced by potters. In front of the potter's stake there was a wooden plank, the miner made it and it was possible to turn the bulk of the vessel for clarity.

In the midst of various rural pottery pottery sets on the first place, it is necessary to place miners, judges of various recognitions. The main purpose of a mountain worker is to serve for cooking in ovens, the form of a mountain worker has been preserved to this day. At times, the miners stumble with special openings on the day, which they zastosovalis, obviously, for the release of the sire: the sirovatka dripped through the open on the day of the miner.

Then let's go "korchagi" - great judges, yak graly, head rank, the role of grain stores, mash and other products.

The narrow-throated judges argued that they called the name "crina", "crina". Smaller, lower miners, potters made flat dishes (bowls, "flats" - bowls, bowls, straws).

Nadzvichayno tikavimi buli brand on the bottoms of the ships. On small herds, which were placed under the vessel when molding yoga on a stake, the potters vir_zal various badges, as if they were scolded on the bottom of the vessel, and were the marks of maistriv.

The stench fought like a stake, a stake with an inscribed cross, a key, a star, a square, a trikutnik.

Choosing the brands of the vessels, be it a singing kurgan group, it was often tried to establish that the scheme of the little small marks is the same, but the scheme is step by step added to the details. So, for example, on one miner, found during the excavation of a barrow burial ground, a brand was struck in the shape of a stake, in one of the dry mounds of that same color, a brand was stitched in the shape of a stake with a middle cross. At the third barrow, a brand with a cross is used in the middle and yet with one line, at the fourth - up to three lines, another one is given. In this order, we draw a line of uninterrupted aggravation. The most important and most important of all are those who miners with the simplest brands are at the same time the most recent, and the skin is folded in succession to the best honors.

All the same, I allow you to admit that the folding of the brands can be evidence of the transfer from the recesses of the pottery. Sin prodovzhuvav father on the right, ale to yoga brand adding "Oplya". in)

Under natural rule, it was richly vibrated to the skin-smooth state, and looked at crafts, and looked at home weeding, which can be seen in the preparation of clothes, stuffing, earthworks equipment.

Teslyar robots were carried out with a sokir, which was a universal weapon. Sokyra could be like a lіsorubnoy, so і teslyarskoy.

The saw and the chisel were not victorious among the agricultural architecture.

Wide zastosuvannya in the sample of the tree knew tіslo - schos on a motif. For help, the adze can bulo dovbati a deck, choven, corito.

Flowers were widely planted for teslyars and woodworkers. The flowers are zavzhdi chotigrand with a curved top. Flowers and thorns were stuck. - processing co-

M'yake shkiryans outrageous to the type of Ukrainian "postols"

live that trick.

behind the low mounds. Sheepskin jackets and hutryan hats were made at home.

On the hillforts, there are bays of plows for scaling the skin from the skies. The chemical side of the shkiri that hutra bula was seen from the Neolithic hours.

For the preparation of fabrics, flax, hemp, and sheep were used.

The yarn was hoveled from the tow behind the help of the spindle. On the spindle, for quickening yoga wrapping, clay chi kam'yane dressed a ring - "spun".

On the slate whorls, there are often badges and inscriptions that confirm the validity of this singing woman.

During the process of processing the flax and the otrimanny yarn, richly different windings, sounds and songs were tied, which gave their hour a ritual character. Imovirno po'yazuyut from the yarns of the goddess Mokosh.

Yarn was woven on a weaving bench. The fabrics fought not only simple, but also visceral. Vіzerunok buvav odnokolirnym i richobarvnim. Often, apart from such a visor, fabrics were embellished with colorful embroidery or stuffing.

The weaving mill is the most convenient mechanism in the countryside and the most necessary at the same time. Stand boules, maybe, at the skin hut.

1.2. Miske craft.

Near the city were widely stocked with wrought-iron mittens. Cauldrons, bowls, bowls made of thin midi sheets were specially made for the singing profile.

Pokrіvlі budіvel krill, order zі lead, forged midi sheets.

From the middle, they poured bells, chandeliers, crosses, folds, candlesticks, weights, weights, fighting weights, pistols, crossings for swords, and in the greater early hours - idols, lifts to namistiv, buckles, stamps for embossing srible, bubonts, brooches for grie in grandmas and so on.

Some of the objects were made in stone livar forms, a large part was made of wax models. A clearly visible flat casting behind the wax model can be seen from a bronze arch of the 12th century. from the place Vizizha on the Desni.

Livarniks often had the opportunity to create the task of creating general speeches, as if it were impossible to beat the form without breaking it. For this victorist, having thus ranks the method of "used form", if they prepared a wax model, they smeared it with clay on the sides, scorched, spitted the whisk, poured metal and broke the clay form for possession of speech. By the same method, a number of bronze and silver brooches with animal muzzles, bronze candlesticks with the same muzzles on the sides and low objects were created.

The material for the molds was piskovik, vapnyak, wen, erysipelas slate.

Vіdomi forms for cauldrons, for crosses, for belt plaques, for wide wrists6 for bubonts, gudzikiv, persniv, etc.

For cast tin, special bronze molds were used. A lot of livar forms imitate expensive grains, flannels, replacing folds with littami.

Most of the midi and srible were forged a variety of utensils - vessels, vases, brothers, chari, stravi toshcho.

The goldsmith made a srіbla (abo midi) flat shortbread, and then started a kuvati yogo on the kovadli from the middle to the edges. Zavdyaki to the reception of the river step by step swelled into a spherical shape.

Pіdsilyuyuchi strike at the singing zones and zalishayuchi deyakі mіstsya less forged, the master reached the bagged contour.

A strikingly forged silverware can be worn by the Chernigiv prince Volodymyr Davidovich, found in the capital of the Golden Ordi - Saraje.

Z kuvannyam srіbla and midi pov'yazane karbuvannya tsikh metals. The simplest type of carburetion is the application of a little on the outer surface of speech with different punches. The ornamented plate was placed on a zhorstka lining, and a vise was applied, strengthening the metal at the stroke. Vizerunki were applied with punches of various shapes: some looked like a small chisel, others gave a beat at the look of a ring, stake, trikutnik. Profiled punches are sharpened for figured carving. In this way, the dipping of the turkish horns at the mounds of the 10th century is embellished. Zdebіl's large little one of these geometrical fetters, is striking with its fantastic ornament of the figures of people and chimerical dragons and birds.

This technique is known until the XII-XII centuries, if the technique of swollen karbuvannya is introduced, with some backbone ornamented with a silver plate, karbuyut from the back side, seeing the little ones with a sharp swollen relief of the name. After that, the front side is subject to more detailed processing: dressing clothes, disguise, hair, correcting the incandescent relief.

In order not to tear the thin metal for such a deep swollen karbuvannya, the robot was carried out on a special spring cushion with a mixture of wax or resin. So, when working on the front side, the back bead is poured with such a springy sum, so as not to destroy the cut relief with a punch punch.

The need for the drotі bula is great and the bula is needed її for other needs even richer. Midny, srіbny, golden drіt ishov on different sizes. Drіt of a great caliber was made hryvnias and bracelets, thin ones - on the side of the kіlz, lancet, and fine threads of dart were embellished on the surface of various objects in a foldable and chimerical vіzernіk fіlіgranі.

Filigree, Russian filigree and twisted darts, which make it possible to be a visor. A filigree can be openwork, if the darts themselves make up the frame of speech, or else they can be a waybill on plates. And in that, and in a different way, for the threads to be fastened between themselves, or with the plate, soldering is needed.

The whole work is wound like this: the thread is twisted on the back, then, for the help of miniature pliers, the scanned threads are bent according to the planned little one and folded one by one or put on the plate. After that, solder is accumulated on the plate, looking like powder of low-melting metal, and the plate with scanned threads placed on it is placed in the brazier. Solder melts that rear filigree from the plate. As if the robot could be openwork, then the threads were taken on such tiles, soldered with solder, so that the stench creaked one by one, but not with the base.

Dried grains of metal were poured onto the plate. The grains of srіbla that gold were harvested far from the most important drops of metal, and then they were laid behind the help of a small tweezer on a plate that was ornamented. Dali її sip with solder and set to the brazier.

At the early hour, the grains were especially painstakingly embellished with silver moons, 2250 silver grains were soldered on the yak, the skin was less than 5-6 times a hairpin head. There are 324 grains per 1 sq. cm. On grained Kiev colts, the number of grains was 5000.

Sometimes the septa grains stagnated. A thin smooth drіt was drunk on the plate, which created the frame of a little one. The expanse between the dart thickly sizzled with the zbіzhzhy, melting all over.

The filigree was fixed in different patterns: for dangling to namistes, for sword hilts, for framing great enamel medallions.

The incrustation was carried out on roasted metal. on the surface, which is ornamented, applying little ones, then this little one is pierced with a cut of a sprat at an angle. After that, the object was heated and placed on the grave of a silver or golden drіt. With a small chisel and light blows of a hammer, they drove them into the grave, flattened and filled the torn edges of the furrow. Inlaid with gold, the midi rang out in black.

In quiet weathers, if it was necessary to take away the silvery flame, the master spent a sprat of parallel furrows, laying dreat on them and then flattening the dreat on them so that the creme threads were angry in the reddish gold surface: here the incrustation turns into gilding. - black and enamel.

The niello was stagnant for the silver feathers, the decorative background was sharply contrasted with the light silver breeze that stands out.

Silver, lead, red copper, syrka, potash, borax, and silt enter the warehouse. The silver plate was made for carving or embossing in such a way, so that the background of the soil was buried in the porch with the little one. The background was additionally trimmed with a rіztem, for a better black zіblom. After that, the powder was diluted and the oatmeal porridge was smeared over the pits of the plate. Then the plate was placed in the brazier, and the black was already mitznaly z'ednuvalas with the silver. Having brushed off the black ashes, the master corrected the edges of the third with a cutter and added protruding parts of the vizierunka.

Emally was embellished with the head rank of golden speech, because only gold can have such a degree of malleability and fusibility, as if it were necessary for the creation of the base of the enamel.

On the surface of the metal, closed veins from the partitions ripple, as if covered with a sloppy mass of enamel of a singing color. Masi buvayut gaps and opaque.

For enamel speeches, gold from the house was zastosovuvaly 20-30% silver. A thin plate of gold was being prepared, on which a small outline of a little one was crushed into the depths, and then on the days of the burial, the viyshov, the jeweler, having named the place, destined to solder the partitions. The partitions were made of the thinnest smuzhok of gold 0.5-2 mm frills. The females viginated as a baby and soldered on the rib on the plate. For the skin color point, it was possible to work with an amount of gold in the middle.

After the completion of the work on gold, enamel powder of various colors was piled into the leather in the middle, and the whole handkerchief was placed to the brazier. Enamel melted mіtsno poddnuvalis іz gold. It was necessary to win the river tody, if the enamel is melted, and yet it has spent the bagan color in the form of overheating. Having frozen the river, the master carefully forged the protruding edges of the golden partitions and polished the surface of the enamel.

Vzuttya, hats, zbroyov_ belts, belts, zbryu, saddles, sagaidaks, shields, cross bags, mittens, batogs, palettes of books and parchment - all the same was necessary for the various ways of bending coats and various ways of lining them.

Oxen, goats and kіnskі skins served as syrovina for the skinner. The back of the shkіri was cleaned from the hair of the majestic vat, like a shattered bollard from a box with shattered blocks, inserted into the grooves dug into the ground stovpіv.

The next stage is the tanning of shkiri, for which special extracts were used, for example, "kvass usniya". The fermentation of the shkirs was accompanied by mechanical rozm'akshennyam їх - the shkiri were m'yali with hands.

The twisted skin was cut and sewn. They sewed and m'yake vzuttya, and vzuttya іz hard sole. If you want to walk in the arch of a small amount, but you can walk through the chobit (hard bun) and the gut (soft bun) if you want, in the stirrups, as they were divided into two types: the first one with a flat base (for the chobit with the bottom) and the other, rounded, for soft vzuttya.

Before especially shkiryanikh rob it is necessary to know the preparation of the red and green morocco - sir, for which rich chobots were scrambled, that parchment was prepared, which was scrambled with calfskin, specially processed and ironed.

The robots with the stone are divided into two divisions: the robots, tied with the bud on the right, tobto. processing of great blocks and slabs, and fine jewelry work on faceting and polishing fine gemstones.

Before the first division, it is necessary to make everyday life (palaces, walls, towers, laznas, churches), stone pipes, crosses, statue slabs, great sculptural creations and the preparation of zhoren. The material was pischanik, vapnyak, marmur, slate, aspid and other breeds.

The oldest monument of stone-cutting is the vіdomiy Zbruchsky idol, X century, knowledge near Galicia. This is a high choti-faced stovp from the relief images on the faces. For yoga, a pile, scoring, a hammer were installed. Large-scale boules and boule mills for manual milling of grain 40-50 cm in diameter and 5-8 cm thick.

The overarching Russian masonry on the right reached Suzdal Rus in the XII-XIII centuries. for Andriy Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod "The Great Nest" and Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich.

The white stone carving of Volodymyr-Suzdal Russia in the embellishment of palaces, cathedrals became an indicative rice of the cathedrals.

The fillings of those dishes were famous for their beautiful decorations. The Russian folk traditions, the manifestation of the Russians about beauty and vitonchene, appeared most often in the art of painting. The famous art critic of the other half of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century. Stasov wrote: “If there are more people, it’s necessary to show that we need to be thinned only in museums, in paintings and statues, at majestic cathedrals, in the grave, at everything vinyatkovogo, especially, and if anything else, then you can straighten out abyak - moving, on the right empty and stupidity... No, right, whole, healthy, really, the mysticism is less there, de need in the subtle forms, in the post-artistic tone, it has already been proclaimed in hundreds of thousands of speeches, like this day, we will recall our life. , modest beauty, have long affirmed the justice of these words.

Another part of the workman's stone was the preparation of small objects, which implied thin tattered work. Here you can see the preparation of stone namists, crosses, icons, livar forms, polishing of stone for embellishing various gold medallions and tsat.

The material was slate, wen, schіlnі varieties of vapnyak and a number of expensive and pіdlogi expensive stone on kshtalt carnelian, crystal, amethyst, sapphire, yacht, almandine, jasper, burshtina.

The namistas were drilled from two sides, so much so that it was important to drill for a long time. Then we cut and sharpened usisto. The last step was grinding the stone. So the stone worked to set the gold.

For a long time, the old cursed speeches, which were found on the settlements and burial mounds of the X-XII centuries, were brought from Byzantium to bring from Syria. Ale, the excavations of V.V. Khvoyk near Kiev brought the foundation of a sklorobny minestern there. At this maisterna, a large number of glassy bracelets and persnі tsіlih, broken and fused at once, were found. There were also found pieces of enamel and tools for making enamel koltiv. The cursed faces were wider and much less, the stench is heard near Kiev, Vyshgorod and other places close to Kiev, and also at the beer - near Volodymyr on Klyazma.

The bracelets were made from glass jugs, folded in a ring near the hot mill and zvarenyh at the mіstsі kіntsіv.

During excavations, places (especially pivdennyh) are found near the balls of the XI-XIII st. curse the judge at the sight of vials and goblets. The stench is crushed from the tovstoy skla and sounded embellished with an ornament from the glass rollers and jgutiv.

The technique of making the glass namistiks was not foldable, the lower making of the bracelets or the other ones.

Virobnitstvo has to be respected exclusively by the Russian craft, and such, as it could be far from being in the skin world. In a small place and near the village, vials of speech (bracelets and namistos) were worn with them by the peddlers themselves, as they carried there and slate spindles, and cheap bronze crosses with single-colour simple enamel, thinly propylene brush combs.

2. Beat the people.

The culture of the people is inextricably linked with yoga, everyday life, Yak and pobut to the people, which is recognized as equal to the development of the state of the country, closely related to cultural processes. The people of Old Russia, like in the great places for their time, where there are tens of thousands of people, so in villages near dozens of yards and villages, which had groups of two or three yards. 2.1 Zhitlo.

a) The term "hut" itself appears to be different from the construction of a dwelling - like a rough one, so like a dugout; This term means living in a warm place, warm living.

The scorching of ordinary residents - huts, windmills - sounded black. Pekti is not small dimary, at the top of the sepulchre, I opened it, through some dim I went out at the reception, and from the window I called that door. With the method of the most visible exit of Dima, the place of pect was placed closer to the door, which came out in the blue. The firebox in a black bula was one of the main causes of frequent fires in the villages.

At the rich booths, the scorched bulo, maybe, was more thoroughly finished. On Tse, one of the way, one of the sisters of the Gennadia (Izbornik Svyatoslav, 1076), in the stroke of the Meshkantzi -Zemlyanki Khatin Khatimovs, “Thinking about the Bidnya, worshiped over Malim, I am very great. Deprived of an arm; if the shoulders and body freeze." At this monument, a lightly covered living room was given an armchair, so it is in the description of a rich "church": "To the reclining one in a firmly crooked temple," listening to the sound of a board about das, "on the thought of the poor, like they lie, like they are pierced" , not wishing to be able to fall asleep "sitting, drink water". Such was the boulevard of the situation of a poor, nap_vіvvlyankovoy life, frosty collection and orphan wind.

No less dignified was the food for the hanging living. The windows of the old Russian boules, which flared up in the middle of the middle, were even smaller.

As a rule, near the wooden houses, it was always "dragling": at two summ decks, a narrow, deep opening was cut through, which is stuck in the doshka.

At the rich budinkas there were great windows, it was possible to wind the glass. Mica in letters dzherelah not zagaduetsya, but її shmatki doshat parts of ancient Russian settlements.

Vіkonne sklo, the wines of the Romans of the 1st century, became a luxury item in Europe, but never knew. One should not be surprised that the round-shaped errors were pierced in the ruins of the palaces of the X-XI centuries. near Kiev, near Bilgorod and in other centers of old Russia.

In X-XIII Art. foldable type of dwelling is folded, which represents a large number of grains.

At Bіlgorodі by excavations, there was a lot of rubbish living. Wanting to talk about them with the head rank in a link with a description of the panuychy class, princes, boyars, combatants, no doubt that this type of life was built above the middle of the feudal lords, and the people's middle, having taken a wide breadth and having survived to this day like a Russian village dweller with yoga a warm "lip", a cold "cell" and zadnuyut їх "blues".

Guba-visota bula warm winter dwelling. The cold cell, brimming with blues, served as a summer bedroom for the lane.

The canopy was a happy lanka - a transition between a lip and a klittyu - and nabula of special significance in the feudal lords, albeit with more writing and on a large scale they repeated the three-membered scheme of the Russian dwelling house.

b) At the palaces, boyar mansions, life went its own way - here warriors, servants roamed around, the innocent servants huddled. Zvіdsi shlo cheruvannya princedoms, towns, villages, here they judged and ordered, here they brought tributes and taxes. In the blue, near the expanses of the gardens, banquets often passed, the river flowed overseas wine and its native "honey", servants carried majestic herbs with meat and game. The women were sitting at the table on a equal footing with the men. Women vzagali took an active part in the management, state, and other right. Vіdomo chimalo zhіnok - diyachok of this kind: Princess Olga, sister of Monomakh Yanka, mother of Danil Galitsky, squad of Andriy Bogolyubsky and іn. At once, the distribution of їzhі, drіbnyh pennies in the name of the sovereign was impossible. Such banquets and such distributions for the hours of Volodymyr I were famous throughout Russia.

The great hall was called Gridnytsia, where the squad was selected and where the rich people could be accommodated. Gridnitsa was a front hall where guests were received.

Judging by the letters of the dzherel, the gridnitsa represents a great “throne room” of its kind, there are less than a few steps on the equal earth.

Gridnytsia bula, mabuti, with a spore, not tied with a well-knit life palace. The greatest character of the city hall and its recognition - but the hall of the rich people's councils from the retinue and the beneficiaries with the numerous "navmisnym people" of ancient Kiev.

In the wake of the changing character of princely rule, for example, the XI century. there was a need for the great ceremonial halls, which symbolized the founding link between the prince and his retinue and the horses of the elders.

The most recent functions of the grill are gradually dying. The stench begins to vikoristovuvatisya like a vyaznitsa - the old "chopping" and "lohi" were insufficient.

For the princely peoples with boyars and banquets, even with a close stake, the "blue" of the most important part of the princely court began to serve. "Canopy" replaces the grid in new minds and often, by analogy with the grid, is called "sennitsa".

Zhitlovy complex to the court of the great feudal lord, bearing the name horomi. The mansion of the princely court was mali based on its planning trinomial system - the warmth of the hut, the blue, the klіt - but it was divided widely and richly.

The blues of the prince's court and the blues of the rich booth rose like a crooked gallery of another on top, where the call went; tsya gallery spiralasya on stovpi that bula to finish open space.

The area of ​​the blue bula was to be finished with a significant one; pid hour of resurrection 1068 r. near Kiev, in the blue of the prince's court, the prince with a small retinue, prince Boris in 1150 p. moment of power on the blue of the Bilgorod palace benket for the clergy and the squad.

With blues, they told me about the tower. That part of the life was full, as it was the beginning of this architectural look.

Terem or Terem was called a tent granny, or a rounded end cover, placed above it; The Terem was also called the entrance hall for the entrance to the chori of the Chernigiv Savior Cathedral and the Volodymyr Cathedral of the Assumption.

Imovirno, the blues were crowned with a special vezha with a tented top, which saw the central part of the palace ensemble.

The half of the dwelling was known from the blues - the warmth of the "hut", along the other side - the cell, which served not only as a summer bedroom, but as a primary front room; smoked like a black firebox "istba" bula is unsuitable for ciєї meti.

Judging from the pіznіshih povchan, at the kutka of the kіtі there was a "goddess" - icons.

Similar to the blue, and the cell often swelled up on top of the other one, otrimuyuchi character chotirikutnoy vezhі, was called "polyushey" and small in the middle of the figurative or ornamental painting.

By the courts of the mansions of the courtyard of the feudal lord, there was a church. The palace spores were not separated by one front room in the palace - the choir. The door of the feudal lord was at that very hour the center of the gospodar and yogo territory, but a number of service dwellings and gospodars' budіvels. Dzherel is called lyokhi, skotarki, laznі.

c) We know very little about old Russian furniture and interior accessories. At the letter dzherelakh, the kilim is often guessed. The undertones of the princely budins were ringing with kilims; tsі tsіkavі create applied art before us did not come. Stoli that bedrooms told about the earthquake near Kiev. The prince's throne was also called the table, - on Kievan coins, where the prince is depicted in an armchair, he wrote to say: "Volodymyr is on the table, and I srіblo".

It is easy to guess in "Words about the death of Igor": Svyatoslav of Kiev lies "on a yew bed" (here he lies on a yew tree, which guesses a red tree). It is also called "bed", "lodge", "lodge".

The carpets of rich people were embellished in a gaudy manner. The bed itself at the rich booth was fluffed up richly.

Visvіtlennya davnoruskih budinkov for weak natural light krіz volokovі vіkna is of little special significance. Bіdolashnі budinki visvіtlyuvalis skіpami; Although there are no riddles about the price, but when excavating Russian places, the floods of light - supports for the skіpok are found. The rich budinki were illuminated with candles. Candles are lit at the dzherelakh more often, but only church ones. Undoubtedly, the wax candles were stagnant in the streets: the candles were left with a better lightening in the rich booths of the former lands until the 19th century.

Especially clay stands, which are sharpened during the hour of excavation, are used as candles. In Kiev, one knows a large number of earthenware lamps, in which there was oil.

2.2 Clothes.

a) The barvy and originality of the old Russian robes are guessed at by the more sophisticated tributes. There are few ancient little ones and descriptions of clothes in dzherelah. Themselves did not reach us with a cloak of clothes. The metal details of the costumes, which have come down to us, still allow us to recall their appearance, and the metal embellishments give the opportunity to imagine the impudent malovnic character of the robe. - Clothes bіdnyakіv.

The old Russian image was saved. On the new one, a short shirt was cut, sharply seen in the tracts of the old shat, as if they were dangling on the prince's portraits. You can say that this is a shirt-kosovorotka: the line of the cut goes down to the gate from the left side. Trousers tucked in at the high chobot.

The dzherelakh have parts of the riddle of the old simple zhebratsky robe "rub", "rags".

At the barrows there are shreds of woolen fabrics, and sometimes it can be seen that the wool was spun, for example, a red color. There are also embroidered fabrics and seams, sewn with mesh gold and embellishment of rich women's clothes.

The belts were thick and narrow (1.5-2 cm), with a medium buckle and a tip. The old Russian buckles are characterized by a shape that guesses the lyre. Belts in more rich human robes were embellished with embossed plaques, medium or silver, near palmettes or rosettes, with the same tip. The shirt was worn significantly wider than the waist. The surplus of the belts are worn out, even in human cases, the woman's clothes are not worn.

Sometimes in the barrows gudziks are ringing like spherical mid-length shirts, as well as brushes, ale, perhaps, especially richly bluo wooden gudziks, which did not reach us before. At woman's clothes namysto, for example, serdolіkovі or krishtalevі, or bubonci served as gudzikami.

The winter clothes of the common people strove for an inexpensive farm. For example, witches' fur coats were introduced into Ancient Russia by the common people, and they blamed the sumnivs that the priests should wear. Sheepskin coats were the widest.

We do not know anything about the headdresses of the old Russian villagers.

The peasants vzuttya timidly zvіchi zі shkіri. From the most recent hours of the house and the name "bast shoes". Prote shkiryans vzatya vzhe dosit wider. Not only in the places of mayzhe, the entire population was already blown into the shkir, but in the villages the shkiryans were not too strong - they often growl in the village barrows.

Ring out all the shkiryan shoes-piston - out of your mouth, sew from a whole piece of soft shkіri. Dzherela is called more sprat of sight in a word: "Prisnitsa" - in a word of the sandal type, which have "high heels" and "kaligi".

However, at the excavations, there are also temples "Russian" shoes with a zhorstkoy pіdmіtkoy and zaliznymi pіdkov. Allan onuchi were wound around the inflated leg, or they dressed the panchokha.

You can dress up the clothes of a Russian peasant like this. Russian linen shirt-kosovorotka with metal, brushed or wooden gudziks, fastened with a narrow belt. Trousers tucked in at the temples or wrapped with shoes while wearing bast shoes or pistons. Over the shirt, dressed in the spring and autumn, coarse-woolen warm clothes, which are replaced in the winter hour by a tricky one, sound like a sheepskin coat. The villager hung up to the waist in various tribal butov speeches: the key to the church, a small lower, an armchair with flint, etc.

Women's clothes for the materials of the excavations of the burial mounds are thicker, lower human, then a rich embellishment was saved. The characteristic embellishment of the words of the Jansk women was the skronevy hoops, prepared by the silsky maisters. Srіbnі or mіdnі skronevі kіltsy vpіtalis іnі women іn hair, pripіlyuvalisіvі to headdresses, yаkі were also rіznomanіtnі. On the pіvdnі, in the pools of Psla, widely іsnuvav zhіnіchі sovіnі brіvіr, whісh folded z vіntsa z thin slіbnoї plate аbо а hoop wіth twisted faceted slіbny drota і slіbnoi plate, prikriplyuєєtsya to nіgo іn the middle (on the forehead), bent in іtsilnоu. Spiral rings, bubots, and shells were hung up to the center of the base.

A row of close-knit rings are large and wide in the dress of an old Russian woman, small earrings of a different shape. Lovers in Kievan Rus were so called tribusin earrings.

There are wide-width namist and bell-shaped namist, metal lancets with podvіskami different forms: moons, round plaques, bubontsiv, animal "wonderful" figurines, small spoons - "twirls".

The clothes of ordinary townspeople, remіsnikіv, drіbnih merchants, obviously, looked like a robe of feudal lords, and th like a rural one. About us we can judge only from one detail. The most famous knowledge in all old Russian places is the charms of glass bracelets in the 11th-13th centuries. The villagers wore bracelets majzhe including midi. The color of the glass bracelets is different: blue, green, yellow, violet and others; the stench is bright and bright. The heels of the glass are flashing more and more. The stability of these details of women's clothing allows us to admit that the clothes of the townspeople are self-sufficient. Obviously, the townspeople were the originals of the image of people in short shirts, like in folk scenes, woven into the great letters of the famous Russian chronicles. Zokrema, homespun linen served as the material for the clothes of the townspeople.

b) The most characteristic sign of the prince, the boyars and the retinue attire is the cloak, the names in Russia are "korzno".

At the militia barrows of the 1st century, there are brooches, clasps of raincoats with a great knowledge.

In quiet weathers, if there are two brooches in the grave, the stench will sound like a lansy.

Cloak-korzno buv zagal with words similar and zahіdnimi. The basket of the nobility worked with expensive material that became significant value.

Under the cork, the main garment was dressed, which is good for the body. Vaughn was small rozrіz for the whole dovzhina and zatіbalasya more around the belt with loops characteristic of the Russian robe. The round or square deep virіz of the gate was sheathed with gold and expensive stones, which made a wide oblіvіk along the edge, which won the name "Dance" or "namista".

The underclothing robe was also sheathed with richly embellished gold and stone oblyamіvka. The sleeves ended with a wide, also embroidered cuff. The belt, ringing with rich embellishments in sets and gold laces, having overflowed the robes at the waist, the yogo kіntsi descended freely down.

Pants are not small, maybe, special names. The prince's vzuttyam was wearing high boots with soft colored coats, blue, yellow and red sap'yanu. They wore them, well, like princes.

The prince's m'yaka is a spherical hat with a cunning band of bula obov'yazkovy attribute of the Russian princes in miniatures, on icons and frescoes from the 11th to the 16th centuries. This hat is of a simpler form and can be analogous to the middle headdresses of the peoples of Europe and Asia. But nowhere did the hats have any special meaning, nor a special opening. It’s not clear why you should clean such clothes for the princes in life, but in the mental feudal art with important princely regalia, before that, Russian ones.

Korzno and other clothes of Bachimo on princely portraits of the 11th-12th centuries. Until 1073, the little ones of Svyatoslav the Izbornik were born, depicted Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, his squad and five blues. On the head of Svyatoslav is a Russian princely cap; the main cloth is blue with a red trim and gold bands; on top it is dressed in blue with a golden strap of a basket, fastened on the right shoulder with a red clasp of golden spades; on her feet are blue shoes. The blue of Svyatoslav is depicted in a raspberry robe with red clasps, golden comirs, belts and trioma with transverse buttonholes. Such clothes and pіznіshe, protyag kіlkoh century, were worn in Russia, zokrema, characteristic buttonholes. From the waist down from both sides fall down in two kints, so that it sounds like a protege and in burial mounds. Caps knyazhich khutryany, high.

Winter clothes of the Russian nobility fought from an expensive farm. Shche Ibn-Fadlan bachiv a sable hat at a dead Rus. "Sable Kovdri" designed by Danilo the Sharpener; There are more and more sable fur coats, knitted in bilins. The "Word about Igor's Departure" has a beaver coat. It is also characteristic of the boules for the clothes of the nobility of kushni khutra.

At the dzherelakh there is a "casing"; not included, what clothes are from a tanned farm.

At the dzherelah, mittens are guessed.

Women's clothes are known to be older, lower human; sophia’s frescoes and miniatures from the collection of Svyatoslav were announced about them. On the miniature from the collection of the princess's robes, there are two pieces of cloth under a golden belt - a short upper one and a long lower one. The sleeves of the upper are wide, which is typical for Russian clothing and clothing, the sleeves of the lower cloth are vuzki from golden handrails. On shiї - wide namysto with expensive stones. Gold laces. Khustka is on the head, which falls on the shoulders. The smut was covered with a blanket of obov'yazkovy for foreign women; vzagali it was called "povoy".

Name the women's embellishments in the house badly. The word "cassock", which used to mean the main embellishment of the head, was guessed in a glimpsed era, but then in a paradoxical zastosuvanni to the pig.

Already on the cob of the X century, the druzhins of the combatants wore gold and silver and namist hryvnia. Russian chroniclers gave respect to expensive hryvnias at the warehouse of the headdress of rich squads.

In the middle of the bracelets there are naytsіkavіshi wide curved silver plates, connected with a hinge and embellished with different images. Gold and silver embellish noble women well for their belongings. They have a rich representation of all types of middle jewelry technology: enamel, filigree, granulation, niello. Wealth has a lot of bracelets, diadems and a hryvnia; cіkavі breastplates of lancers from great golden medallions with enamel images of birds and crosses of different colors.

Ale, dominating the camp at the woman’s chosen one, was occupied by Kolti. These are the great empty ones in the middle of the gold, or the silver pendants that were worn by the hair. The gold colt was embellished with a partition of frequent enamel, which gave a special order to the vishukano. Silver kolt іnodi mav zіrchastu form that folded wooden vіzerunkom.

IV. DIRECTLY ARTISTIC CULTURE.

1. Writing, literacy, enlightenment.

a) The basis of whether ancient culture is writing. When did the won originate in Russia? For a long time there was a thought that a leaf came to Russia at once from Christianity, from church books and prayers. However, it's important to wait a minute. Є svіdchennya іsnuvannya slov'anskoi ї pislovnostі zadovgo pri khristianіzatsії Rusі. At 1949r. Radyansky archaeologist D.V. Avdusin at the hour of excavations near Smolensk knew of earthenware, which can be seen up to the ear of the XV. Tse meant that already at the same hour the middle-Slovakian middle-class had a leaf, having created the alphabet. About the wedding of the Byzantine diplomat and the Slavic educator Cyril. Under the hour of rebuking at Chersonese at the 60th anniversary of the IX century. vіn getting to know the Gospel, let's write in syllable letters. Nadal Kirilo and Yogo brother Methodius became the founders of the words of the Jansk alphabet, yak, pevne, in some parts of the language it was grounded on the principles of the word Yang sheet, which was based on the similar, pivdenny and old words of the past to the Christianization.

It is necessary to tell the one who made an agreement between Russia and Byzantium, how the first half of the XV. At that hour lie the foundation of interpreters-translators and rewriters, as they wrote down promo messages on parchment. b) The Christianization of Russia gave a strong contribution to the further development of writing and literacy. At the time of Volodymyr, church letters began to arrive in Russia, translations from Byzantium, Bulgaria, Serbia. They appeared, especially during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, that її blues, numerically translating Greek and Bulgarian books like a church, and secular zmist. Perekladayutsya, zokrema, Byzantine historical works, life of Christian saints. Translations became the headstones of literate people: they read them out of satisfaction in the princely, boyar, merchant middle, in monasteries, churches, where Russian literature was born. At the XI century. create such popular translations like "Olexandria", which avenges legends and stories about the life and deeds of Oleksandr the Great, "Devgenієvo dіyannya", which is a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about the exploits of the warrior Digenis.

In this rank, a Russian person of the XI century is literate. knowing richly of the fact that the writing and book culture of Northern Europe, Byzantium is small in its order.

Personnel of the first Russian diplomats, copyists, translators were molded at schools, they were used at churches from the hours of Volodymyr I and Yaroslav the Wise, and later for monasteries. There was little evidence about the development of literacy in Russia in the 11th-12th centuries. However, the won bula was expanded mainly in the middle of the city, especially in the number of wealthy city dwellers, the princely-boyar elite, merchants, and foreign artisans. In the rural area, in distant, deaf places, the population was perhaps unwritten.

W XI century. rich families began to read letters like boys, and girls. The sister of Volodymyr Monomakh Yanka, the founder of the women's monastery near Kiev, created a school for the education of girls.

Let's celebrate the expansion of literacy in the localities and frontiers and the rank of birch bark literacy. At 1951r. under the hour of archeological excavations near Novgorod, the spivrobitnitsa of the expedition Nina Akulova stole the birch bark from the earth with letters, which were well saved for it. "I'm twenty rokіv checks for tsyu znahіdka!" - Professor A.V. Artsikhovsky, long ago admitting that the riven of literacy in Russia at that hour could know its own wit on the mass sheet, like the letters in Russian papers on wooden boards, which were spoken by foreign svіdchennya, like birch bark. From that hour, hundreds of birch bark letters were introduced into the scientific obig, to speak about those that in Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, and other places in Russia, people loved and were able to write one to one. Among the lists of business documents, the exchange of information, the request from the guest to instill love in the list. Khtos Mikita wrote his kohaniy Ulyanya on the birch bark "From Mikit to Ulyanitsa. Follow me...".

One more note about the development of literacy in Russia has been lost: this is the name of writing graphs. They were seen on the walls of the church by lovers of forging their souls. In the middle of writing, think about life, scars, prayers. The famous Volodymyr Monomakh, still young, at the hour of the church service, ruined by the same young princes of NATO, scribbled on the walls of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev "Oh, it's hard for me" and signed his Christian names "Vasil".

2. Literature. Usna folk creativity.

a) Irresistibly pouring in Russian folklore, old Greek and old Bulgarian literature on old Russian bookishness. The book became a great ruin, after the adoption of Christianity by Russia, over the baths of the country's culture, a book - on birch bark, not a wooden plank, not a suviy, the book itself.

*cob picking-

From the litopis we see that the beginning of a systematic book in Russia. A selection of books was laid down in Russia by Prince Volodymyr, like, overflowing with Korsun, there were a lot of folios from the Greek city. Further on, the library became more popular with the gentry: books were bought, they were given as gifts, with the luggage of literature they were sent to the Russian metropolis of the Greek priests. The main flow of books from Byzantium and Bulgaria.

Through the second hundred years after Christening, on the cob of the XIII century, Russia is too small to reach the great number of works of Byzantine authors. And why do you create different genres. For example, the bula dogmatic literature is "Exactly baptized Orthodox faith" by John of Damascus, "Words" by Athanasius of Oleksandriysky, "Povchannya" by Cyril of Oleksandriysky; biblio-tlumachalna - Athanasius of Oleksandriysky, Olympiodor; tomb - "Ladder" by John Lestvichkin, created by Nil of Sinai, "Vidpovid" by Athanasius Sinai; the words of the church - Gregory the Theologian, John Zolotoust, Theodore Studit, Ephraim the Syrian.

Before the count of reading Russian scribes, the life of the saints - the hagiographic literature - became widespread.

Illuminated Russian people quickly reached the Greek historical literature: a small selection of short retellings of the Old Testament; chronicles of the cladding of Byzantine history - George Amartol, John Malali.

In Russia, even before the Mongol heap, the familiars of the old Greek language were no wonder. Having taken care of translations, Prince Yaroslav for the help of highly illumined tlumachs. Bible

It is especially necessary to say about the Bible - the sacred writings of Christianity. The first translation of the New Testament of the words of the Janskian language was broken by Cyril and Methodius. After this translation, Russia spiked the Azi of Christianity. At XI Art. translations of the verses of the Old Testament texts were taken in the collections (pp. 1073 and 1076).

Until the XII century. christians mali maizhe new word'an translation of the bible.

Great is the merit of the sphere of enlightenment of Prince Yaroslav the Wise. "The activity of Yaroslav, otherwise, was crushed by him, it was believed that Russia, baptized by Volodymyr, having built a book that was literate ...", - the Russian historian of the 19th century affirmed. W.U. Golubinsky.

That is why, after the baptism, the works of the foreign adventure were reached by the foreign ones, indeed, the original ones and talents.

We do not know the names of the authors of the reports about the campaigns of Oleg, about the baptism of Olga and the war of Svyatoslav. The first author of the literary creation in Russia, becoming the priest of the princely church near Berestov, was Metropolitan Hilarion. On the cob of the 40s of the XI century. having created his famous “Word about Law and Grace”, in a way that, in a clear journalistic form, he exclaimed his own enlightened place of Russia in the history of the world. We already talked about the new one.

In the other half of the XI century. z'yavlyayutsya and іnshі yaskravі literary and journalistic creations: "To remember that praise of Volodymyr" Chence Yakov, in which idea of ​​Ilarion otrimuyut distant development and stand up to the historical position of Volodymyr I. At the same time, "The Tale of the First Expansion of Christianity in Russia", "The Tale of Boris and Glyba", the patron saints and protectors of the Russian land, are being created.

In the last quarter of the XI century. begin to work on your creations, the black Nestor. Chronicle buv yogo final fundamental work. Before many wines, having created the famous "Reading about the life of Boris and Glib". In a new way, like in the "Word" of Ilarion, like a new one in the "Post of Time Years", the ideas of the unity of Russia sound, it seems to be more appropriate for defenders and debailists. Even at that hour, Russian authors are turbulent in the growing political fortunes of the Russian lands, de stink foresaw the imminent political catastrophe.

Literature XII century. continue the traditions of Russian works of the XI century. New ecclesiastical and secular creations are being created, marked by a bright form, a wealth of thoughts, and wide borders; z'yavlyayutsya new genres of literature.

Volodymyr Monomakh wrote his famous "Lord of the Children" on the graves of the rocks, as it became one of the favorite readings of the Russian people of the early middle age.

On the cob XII century. one of the companions of Monomakh, hegumen Danilo, creates his own, no less famous "Hegumen Danilo's walk in the holy month."

The devout Russian people lied before the Lord’s tinder and passed a long and important path - to Constantinople, then through the islands of the Aegean Sea to the island of Crete, to Palestine and to Jerusalem, and in that hour the first power of the cross-bearers was founded on the island of King Baldwin. Danilo, having described in detail all his ways, rozpovіv about perebuvannya at the court of the King of Rus, about marching with him against the Arabs. Danilo prayed for the tomb of the Lord, placing there a lamp over the Russian land: for the coffin of Christ, for five dozen liturgies "For the princes of the Russians and for all Christians".

I "Povchannya", and "Hodinnya" were the first genres of their kind in Russian literature.

XII - cob XIII Art. gave chimalo іnshih yaskravih religious and secular creations, like they replenished the treasury of Russian culture. Among them is the "Word" and "Prayer" by Danil Zatochnik, who, having been in a state of mind, having tried the low life dramas, rozmirkovu about the sense of life, about the harmony of the people, about the ideal ruler. Turning to his prince in "Prayer", Danilo talks about those who are right people are guilty of taking on the strength of Samson, the goodness of Oleksandr the Great, the mind of Josip, the wisdom of Solomon, the cunning of David. Returning to biblical stories old history help him to convey his ideas to the addressee. Lyudina, according to the author, is guilty of filling the heart with beauty and wisdom, helping her neighbor in confusion, showing mercy to the needy, resisting evil. The humanist line of the ancient Russian literature here is stupefying itself.

Author of the middle of the XII century. Metropolitan of Kiev Klimenty Smolyatich at his "Messenger" priests Thomas, relying on the Greek philosophers Aristotle, Plato, on the work of Homer, also creates the image of a high-moral person, someone else's dominion, lust and Marnoslavism.

At his "Parable about the human soul" (end of the XII century), Bishop Kirilo of the Turov city, spiraling on the Christian light of understanding, gives his own clouding to the sense of the human butt, rozmirkovu about the need for a fast connection of the soul and body. At the same time, the same time to put at his own "parables" to the zilkomi for the Rosiyskoi pitannya, the rosemic one about the mutual church, the native of the national-patriyotichna of the land, the bula of the princes in the time, the yak of Volodymia in the hour. centralization policy ahead of the Mongol-Tatar heap.

Instructed by these works, de religious and secular motifs were constantly intertwined, copying at monasteries, churches, princely and boyar houses diligently copying church service books, prayers, collections of church retellings, life of the god of saints, ancient times All the richness of religious, theological thought also became an invisible part of the wild Russian culture.

Ale, well, we appreciate the synthesis of Russian culture, intertwining in pagan and Christian rice, religious and secular, spiritual and national motifs, sounded in the "Word about the death of Igor". Tse poem dobi. Tse її poetic figurative viraz. Not only crying out for the unity of the Russian land, not only proudly speaking about the masculinity of the "Russians" and not only lamenting for the dead, but thinking about the place of Russia in the history of the world, the links of Russia with the nations of the world. Wiki "Trayana" and Chersonesos, Venetians, Germans, Greeks - all the stench is connected with the share of the Russian land, de famous for less than the one who speaks of right interests.

And then create the XII century, which lulled all over Russia, were created in the period of the greatest political fragmentation of the country.

b) Litopisi - the center of the history of Old Russia, її ideology, rozumіnnya її mіstsya in svіtovіy іstorії - one of the most important memoirs and letters, literature, history, and culture. For the compilation of litopisiv, that is. weather vikladіv podіy, taken less people naypimennіshi, znayuchi, wise, zdatnі not easy to viklasti raznі sprіk y rіk, and give їm vodpovidne clarification, deprive the posterity of the school of the epoch of oskelka її razumili litopistsі.

The chronicler was right sovereign, right princely. The entrusted writing of the litopis was given not just to the most literate and difficult people, but to the one who had the wisdom to carry out ideas close to those other princely heads, to that other princely house. Tim himself, the objectivity and honesty of the chronicler entered into a titration with what we call "social engagement". as if the chronicler was not satisfied with the likeness of his deputy, they parted with him and handed over the folds of the chronicler to a different, more superficial, more hearsay author. It is a pity that the work for the needs of the authorities was already born at the dawn of writing, and not only in Russia, but in other lands.

Literary writing, behind the guardianship of the scholars, appeared in Russia after the introduction of Christianity. The first litopis, possibly, was put together in the manner of the Xv. Vaughn was called to represent the history of Russia at the hour when a new dynasty of Rurikovich appeared there and before the reign of Volodymyr with hostile victories, from the introduction of Christianity in Russia. Already at this hour, the right to oblige to write chronicles was given to the deacons of the church. In the churches and monasteries themselves, there were well-written, well-prepared and trained people - priests, chenci. The stench of a lot of bookish spadshchina, translating literature, Russian records of old epics, legends, bilin, retellings; at the їkhny order of the boules and grand duke archives. It was the best way to vikonate tsyu vіdpovіdalnu and important robot: create a letter historical memo of the epoch, lived and practiced in such a stench, went all the way with the past hours, with deep historical turns.

Vcheni vvazhayut, that, as the chronicles of large-scale historical works appeared, that they slandered the birthplace of Russian history, - they founded the okrem records, the churches, the foundations of rozpovidi, as the basis and served as the basis of the first fundamental works. There were stories about Kiya and the fall of Kiev, about the campaigns of the Russian troops against Byzantium, about the mantra of Princess Olga to Constantinople, about the wars of Svyatoslav, the story about the driving in of Boris and Glib, as well as bilini, the lives of saints, preaching, retelling, rіsnu .

Later, already at the hour of the creation of litopiss, all new roses came to them, reports about hostile signs in Russia, on the kshtalt of the famous chvari 1097r. that blinding of the young prince Valilka, or about the departure of the Russian princes to the Polovtsians in 1111r. Litopis including to its warehouse that Volodymyr Monomakh's words about life - yogo "Let's go to children".

Another chronicle of creations under Yaroslav the Wise at the time, if he united Russia, laying down the church of St. Sophia. This lithopis took away the previous lithopis from his own, and other materials.

Already at the first stage of the creation of litopisiv, it became obvious that the stench is collective creativity, є zvedennih earlier literal records, documents, various types of written and written historical records. The orderer of the chergovy lithographic crypt acted as the author of the re-written parts of the lithopis, and as the editor. The axis of this inspiration to straighten the idea of ​​crypting in the right direction was highly valued by the Kievan princes.

Chergov litopisne Zvіd was created by the famous Ilarion, who wrote yogo, like, under the name of monk Nikon, in the 60-70s of the XI century, After the death of Yaroslav the Wise. And then Zvid appeared already for the hours of Svyatopolk at the 90th anniversary of the XI century.

Zvid, for which the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor took up and who took our history under the name of "About the time years", it appeared, in such a rank, less than five years after the rakhunok and created in the first ten years of the XII century. at the court of Prince Svyatopolk. And the skin star is enriched with new and new materials, and the skin of the author has brought his own talent, his knowledge, erudition. The star of Nestor was the pinnacle of early Russian literature.

At the first rows of his chronicle, Nestor put the food "The stars of isti came to the Russian land, who in Kieli, having planted the first princes and the stars of the Russian land became їsti." In this manner, even in the first words of the litopis there are about those large-scale goals, as if placing the author in front of him. It’s true, the chronicle did not become a chronicle, such as there were at that time in the world - dry, impartially fixing facts, but a well-arranged rose of today’s historian, to bring philosophical and religious associations to the rose, with their own imagery, temperament. Pokhodzhennya Rusi, as we have already said, Nestor draws and natomist the development of all worldly history. Russia is one of the European peoples.

Vykoristovuyuchi front crypt, documentary materials, zokrema, for example, treaty of Russia with Byzantium, the litographer spreads a wide panorama historical backgrounds, who shove like the internal history of Russia, the formation of a global Russian statehood with the center near Kiev, so do the international sights of Russia with a new light. The goal of the gallery of historical deities was to take place on the sides of Nestor's chronicle - princes, boyars, posadniks, thousands, merchants, church deacons. Vіn rozpovidaє about vіyskovі trips, about the organization of monasteries, the founding of new temples and about the opening of schools, about religious superechki and reforms of the internal Russian life. Nestor constantly succumbs to the life of the people in a healthy, yogo mood, showing dissatisfaction with the prince's politics. On the sides of the chronicle, we read about rebellions, the driving in of princes and boyars, and zhorstok hromadski essences. Everything the author describes thoughtfully and calmly, pretending to be objective, naskolki vzagali may be objectively deeply religious people, as if they were in their assessments of the understanding of Christian honesty and sin. Ale, to put it bluntly, yoga religious assessments are even closer to those of deep human assessments. vbivstvo, zrada, deceit, swearing and swearing Nestor sue uncompromisingly, but magnifies honesty, svaville, fidelity, gentry, and other beautiful human qualities. The entire litopis was conceived by the feelings of the unity of Russia, the patriotic mood. All the main ideas of them were estimated only from a glance of the religious ones to understand, and from the positions of these transcendental Russian sovereign ideals. This motive sounded especially significant ahead of the political disintegration of Russia, which had begun.

In 1116-1118. the litopis was rewritten again. Volodymyr Monomakh and Yogo son Mstislav, like a prince in Kiev, were dissatisfied with it, like Nestor, having shown a role in the Russian history of Svyatopolk, for the order of such a story in the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, "The Tale of Temporal Years" was written. Monomakh read the literature from the Pechersk Chentsi and passed it on to his ancestral Vidubitsky monastery. Yogo Igumen Sylvester and becoming the author of a new Zvodu. The positive assessments of Svyatopolk were faded, and all the posts of Volodymyr Monomakh were promoted, on the main body of the "Post of Time Years" they were left behind. First, Nestorov's work was a non-administrative warehouse, like in Kiev literature, and in the literature of other Russian princedoms, being one of the most successful threads for all Russian culture.

Given the political disintegration of Russia and the rise of other Russian centers, literature began to fragment. The Crimea of ​​Kiev and Novgorod appeared their own lithographic crypts near Smolensk, Pskov, Volodymyr-on-Klyazma, Galich, Volodymyr-Volinsky, Ryazan, Chernigov, Pereyaslav-Rusky. At the skin, the peculiarities of the history of their land were brought to light, and the princes of power were blamed on the first plan. So, the Volodymyr-Suzdalian chronicles showed the history of the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andriy Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Great Nest; Galician Litopis on the cob XIII in. became a daily biography of the famous prince-warrior Danylo Galitsky; about Chernigivska gіlka Rurikovich opovіd importantly Chernіgіvskiy litopis. And yet, in the Mistsevoy, the literary writings clearly looked through the Russian coils. The history of the skin earth was based on the Russian history, "The Tale of Bygone Years" was an indelible part of the richness of the literary crypts. The deyakі їх continued the tradition of Russian literary writing of the XI century. So, not long before the Mongol-Tatar bulk, between the XII-XIII centuries. in Kiev, a new lithographic crypt was created, to which the foundations were built, which were used in Chernigov, Galich, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, Ryazan and other Russian places. It can be seen that the author of the crypt mav at his order of the lithography of different Russian places, including in Kiev, at the Vidubitsky monastery, created a whole library of lithographic crypts, as they became the dzherel of new historical creations of the XII-XIII centuries

Preservation of the Russian lithographic tradition showed the Volodymyr-Suzdal lithographic crypt of the 13th century, which covered the history of the land from the legendary Kyi to Vsevolod the Great Nest.

c) Letters from the dzherel to tell about the richness and diversity of folklore in Kievan Rus. Significantly, the calendar ceremonial poetry occupied a special place for him: spells, spells, ritual songs, as if they were an invisible part of the agrarian cult. Ritual folklore, including also spring songs, funeral crying-voices, songs on banquets and feasts. Widened boulli and mythological opovіdі, scho vіdbivali pagan manifestations of old words. To build up the church with a flourish, to conquer the excesses of paganism, led a baked struggle with the "vile" zvichay, "bіsovskih igrischi" and "blues". Prote tsi vidi folklore was preserved in folklore right up to the 19th-20th centuries, having spent an hour with their calm religious zmist.

They also founded folklore forms, as if they were connected with the pagan cult, - sayings, orders, riddles, fairy tales, labor songs. Authors of literary works widely celebrated in their work. Kazkovi motifs and images found their way in litopisi, in life literature (for example, in "Kyiv-Pechersky pateriky").

The significance of historical genres in folklore grows with the establishment of the state and the old Russian nationality. For a long time, rich generations of people created and saved their own "usny litopis" at the sight of prose retellings and epic tales about the past of the native land. The "Usny Litopis" rewrote the chronicle with a letter and served as one of the її main dzherel.

Until X Art. vindication of a new epic genre - the heroic bilin epic, which has become the pinnacle of conventional folk creativity. Buliny - sleep poetically create about the past. They are based on real historical podії, the prototypes of some bakery heroes are people who really founded them. So, the prototype of the bilin Dobrin Mikitovich was uncle Volodymyr Svyatoslavich voivode Dobrin, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in litopisah. Prote bilini rarely took care of the accuracy of the actual details. Ale is not in the exact pre-trial historical facts of bilin's goodness. The main value of what you create is created by the people and reflects its historical look, its assessment of the reality of historical podias and the rhyme of social insights that were accumulated in the Old Russian state, yoga ideals.

Most bilinear plots are connected with the hour of Prince Volodymyr Svyatoslavich - the hour of the unity and power of Russia and the successful struggle against the steppe nomads. But the correct hero of the bilin epic is not Prince Volodymyr, but heroic heroes, as they distinguished the people. Illya Muromets, village son, male warrior-patriot, defender of the "widow that orphan" became the most beloved folk hero. The people settled and the peasant-orach Mikula Selyaninovich.

The Bilins had a statement about Russia as a single state. The main topic of the day is the struggle of the people with foreign zagarbniks, the stench is permeated with the spirit of patriotism.

I founded the dream of poetry and in the princely-druzhina middle. The warriors' songs glorified the princes and feats of yoga. You can smell the song, for example, in the literary description of Prince Yaroslav and the description of his marches. The princely retinues had their own "song-creators"-professionals, who composed songs-"glory" in honor of the princes of those warriors. Such courtiers were, ymovirno, guessing at the "Words about the death of Igor" Boyar and "the glorious speech of Mitus", about which one can be found in the Galician-Volinsky chronicle.

Oral folk art continued to live and develop after the appearance of written literature, becoming an important element of the culture of the middle class. In the coming century, writers and poets victoriously wrote the stories of conventional poetry and the arsenal of artistic works and priyomiv, having poured into literature.

3. Architecture.

a) Russia in ancient times was made of wood, that architecture, pagan prayer houses, fortets, towers, huts were made of wood. At the tree, the Russian people, we think like the people, who lived in order with similar words, expressed their budding beauty, almost proportions, angering architectural disputes from the natural nature.

Most of the living spores at the places, fortifications, palaces and churches at that time were from a tree. Archaeological excavations have shown a difference in wooden architecture and foundations in the XI-XIII centuries. trichotiripoverhovy budіvel ("vezhі" - donzhoni, terema). A lot of wooden forms - bashti, double-covered coats - have been pushed into the stone architecture by the year.

The quintessence of the middle architectural disputes and the Christian Sunset, and the Muslim Skhodі buli temple spores. So it was in Russia. The successors figuratively call the middle cathedral the "clay book" of the era: the architect organizes the architectural form, so that he can fit into the Russian landscape, and at his inter'єrі vіdpovіdatima the head of the divine service; painters paint at the kіlka rows of moustache walls and crypts of life; masters of gold and silver references forge, show and carve chandeliers and church fillings; artists paint icons; hangers embellish hanging fabrics; copyists and miniaturists are preparing a library of necessary books. Therefore, such a church complex has such a skin for that other place, a showcase of folk wisdom and craftsmanship.

For a long time it was respected that the ancient architects were "on the eye", without special designs. New studies have shown that the architects of ancient Russia were well aware of the proportions ("golden tulle", referring to type a: a * 2, de a - walnut "pi" and іn; "pi" їм bulo in archimedean form - 66/21) . To ease the architectural roses, a system of several sazhens was found:

straight sazhen -152.7 cm;

sazhen scythe - diagonal of a square with a side

at a straight fathom - 216 cm;

peace sazhen - 176.4 cm;

large sazhen - the diagonal of the square with the side

peace has a sazhen - 250 cm.

In the basis of the skin life there was a mathematical system, as it was the beginning of the cegli format, the wall thickness, the radius of the arches and the hall dimensions of the life. When it comes to everyday life, everything can be thought out and paid for in advance. Sometimes in the mathematical rozrahunka, the architects would bring in the naytsіkavіshi correction of the future, not yet zbudovanny budinka, guarding and rearranging the inevitable optical creation (for example, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerlіr st.

b) The architects jumped to see the churches of the middle of the city's houses. At the Pvnіchnyh places, where the boulders were broken from the logs of the boudinka, the churches were robbed with white ones, and in the pivnіchnyh places, de budіvlі were smeared with clay and beaten, the churches were covered in a reddish erysipelous barn (through your ball). In this way, church disputes at the crossroads and squares became commemorated.

The teachers of stone architecture were Byzantines. Naprikintsi X Art. Byzantine masters argued near Kiev on the site of the ancient city of Kyi the great five-headed Assumption (Desyatinna) church. In the middle of the XI century. Russian architects visited the most important political centers of Russia with a number of monumental stone (stone) temples: the Transfiguration Cathedral near Chernigov, Sophia Cathedral near Kiev, Sophia Cathedral near Polotsk and St. Sophia Cathedral near Novgorod. The names of these cathedrals, the head churches of Sophia are connected with two ideas: first, the repetition of the name of the central temple of the entire Byzantine Empire - Sophia of Tsaregradskaya (the mosque near Istanbul); in another way, the temples were dedicated to the supreme deity of the Christian pantheon - god, the creator of the world, in an abstract, supreme form of "the sophia of the wisdom of God". Offended aspects of pov'yazanі іz utverzhennâ vyshchoї knyazіvskoїї vladi.

A large number of temples will be built at the XI and XII centuries. in different places Russia; we don't know wooden church buildings for the hour. The era of feudal fragmentation was an hour for the development of culture and architecture of the city. In the other half of the XII - on the cob of the XIII century. the number of temples near so many places reached dozens of dozens. Russia became a full-fledged participant in the creation of the global European "Romanian" style, expanding its local variants in the skin princedom.

The constructive scheme of church life is like that. Chotiri massive stovpi, roztashovani like bi along the corners of the square, connected in pairs by arches. There is a "drum" on the arches - a cylindrical "shiya" budіvlі, which ends with a spherical dome. Around the central frame, there will be the sound walls of the bud, as they take in part of the heaviness of the drum and the dome. Upland stench ends with crypts. At the skhіdnіy stіnі there are stumbling steps for vіvtar (apse), at the reshti stіn there are portals for the entrance.

The scheme of the ovnіshny looks like this. Budіvlya looks like three geometric figures, put one on one: the cube is the base; on a new cylinder; to the beast - half a kuli. Ale qiu dry scheme, the architects urinated the “zakomar” (end of the crypts) along the top of the dome, often framed with vіknami, pilasters or napіvkolonami, which segment the skin facade vertically with arched belts, which are next to the arches of the portal, in the fall - in the row churches on the third height of life. All decor was widely stagnant: the basement in the middle of the church was painted with colorful majolica or mosaic, and then with copper slabs, which were celebrated with gold.

The cover was either lead or copper with gilding. The gold mesh framed the flimsy zakomari, the middle gate was vkrita with golden aims. The walls were decorated with majolica and often painted. there, where the temples were not made of cegli, but of white stone, the walls were covered with sculptural images and intricate ornaments. At the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. the charismatic style of temples is changing. The skin is growing uphill, there are tripovers and chotiripoverwoods and stones. The temple architecture of the old type begins to "sink" in the wild city ensemble. It was necessary to rise above the place, to know new forms. Budinki appeared from the kіlkom in rows of stepped arches, like they lifted the dome to a significant height.

Two P'yatnitsky (in honor of St. Paraskevi-Pyatnitsa) churches in Novgorod (1207) and in Chernigov, as well as Michael's Church near Smolensk, can be butts. The white-stone architecture of the Volodymyr-Suzdal land, created by the sons of Yuri Dolgorukov - Andriy Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Great Nest, resonates with unperfected harmony. The Church of the Intercession on the River Nerl, the building of Andriy's palace in Bogolyubov (de vin murders) and two miracle cathedrals of the end of the XII century. - Dormition and Dmitrovsky (offended by Volodymyr), de proportionateness of the other parts harmonizes with a wild idea. The generous decorativeness of the Dmitrovsky Cathedral does not matter wild forms. It is not without reason that this cathedral is compared with the "Word about the death of Igor": here and there the ornamental details are inextricably linked with a wild idea, polyuyuchi, and not zatulyayuchi її; and here and there the monumentalism and the subtlety, the laconicism and the deepness oppose.

The Tatar bulk for 60 years interrupted the development of Russian architecture. The swan song of the white-stone architecture of St. George's Cathedral near Yur'ev-Polsky, the whole view of the earth up to the dome is inscribed. Vіn buv mining in 1236, but stone carving was not completed; hordes of Batia passed through the Suzdal land, flooding the cathedral with rubble. Naprikintsi XV cent. lover of books, litopisiv and antiquities, architect and sculptor V.D. zavdyaki youmu vono was saved by the doninі.

5. Painting, sculpture, music.

a) Old Russian art - painting, sculpture, music - with the adoption of Christianity also experienced significant changes. Yazichnitskaya Rus knew all kinds of art, but at the same time pagan, folk expression. Ancient carvings on wood, kamenerizi created wooden and stone sculptures of pagan gods, spirits. The pictorialists painted the walls of the pagan temples, robbed sketches of magic masks, which were then prepared by craftsmen; musicians, playing on strings and brass musical instruments, cherished the tribal leaders, cherished the common people.

The Christian Church has brought to these sights of the mysticism a different kind of zmist. Church mysticism under the order of the greatest met – to sleep the Christian God, the exploits of the apostles, saints, children of the church. Just as in the pagan mysticism the "body" triumphed over the "spirit" and everything earthly, which emphasized nature, was strengthened, the church mysticism supported the power of the "spirit" over the body, hardened the high feats of the human soul for the sake of the moral principles of Christianity. In Byzantine art, which was respected in those hours found in the world, it showed itself in the fact that there painting, music, and art creation were created mainly for the church canons, everything superimposed on the greater Christian principles. Asceticism and rigor in painting (icon painting, mosaic, fresco), high ground, the "divineness" of Greek church prayers and hymns, the temple itself, which became a place of prayerful union of people - all this was powerful for Byzantine art. Even though that other religious, theological theme was in Christianity once and for all forever installed, then it’s not enough for the mystics, in the opinion of the Byzantines, it’s not enough to show this idea once and for all by the established rank; the artist, becoming less of a listener of the canons, as the church dictated.

b) From the first years of the Byzantine church mysticism in Russia outlived its entire history of Russian folk culture and folk aesthetic manifestations. Already at the XI century. Suvor's ascetic manner of Byzantine icon painting was transformed under the penzle of Russian artists into portraits close to nature, even though Russian icons carried all the images of an intelligent icon-painting face. At this hour, the Pechersk black-painter Olympiy became famous, about whom the fellows used to say that he was "the horse to write cunning letters." "At the princely prince of Kiev, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, under the abbess of the Monk Nikon ... they arrived to adorn the holy Caves church with Greek icon painters; to the icon painters and the blessings of Alipii with their fathers in the beginning of the mafia life of Alipiy."

They told about Olympia that icon painting was the main reason for one’s life. Ale zaroblene vіn vіtrachav vіtrachov аnd svoєridno: kupuvav one part moustache, scho was necessary for the yogo craft, іdvav vіddavav bіdnyakam, and a third sacrificing to the Pechersk Monastery. The robots of the penzla Alipiya, unfortunately, were not spared.

Along with iconography, fresco painting and mosaics developed. The frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev show the manner of the leaf of the local Greek and Russian masters, they are a tribute to human warmth, strength and simplicity. On the walls of the cathedral there are images of saints, and the image of Yaroslav the Wise, and images of Russian buffoons, and creatures. Beautiful icon painting, fresco, mosaic painting reminiscent of other churches in Kiev. with their great mystical power, the mosaics of the Mikhailovsky Golden-Domed Monastery with their images of the apostles, saints, have lost their Byzantine austerity; their faces became more soft, rounded.

More and more coming out of the Byzantine recession, and spiraling on the traditions of the Mists, which have grown together from the process of feudal fragmentation, Kiev artists have developed their own style. The images of the image, shat, architectural lashtunks are penetrated by the mіstsevі risi, scho vіdbivayut rosіyski tipi, rosіyskiy costume (frescoes "Musicants and buffoons", "Polyuvannya on a bear", frescoes attached by Joachim and Annie Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, well "Blessing") This is how the foundations of the formation of the Russian school of painting were laid step by step.

Already at the XII - XIII Art. the Novgorod school of painting was formed. The clarity of the idea, the reality of the image, the accessibility became the characteristic rice. Z XII Art. the miraculous creations of Novgorod painters have reached us: the icon "Angel of Golden Power", de for all Byzantine intelligence, the image of the Angel looks tremulous and ingenious human soul, and "Ustyuzke Annunciation". Otherwise, the icon "Savior Not Made by Hands" (also XII century), on which Christ, with his razor-sharp evil of the brows, stands grim, so that all minds judge the human race. In the icon "Assumption of the Mother of God" in the persons of the apostles, all the sorrow is spent. Finish, for example, the famous frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa near Novgorod (end of the 12th century).

The wide breadth of icon-painting, fresco painting was characteristic of Chernigov, Rostov, Suzdal, and Volodymyr-on-Klyazma, de miraculous frescoes depicting the Last Judgment, embellished the Dmitri Cathedral.

One of the earliest works of Novgorod easel painting, the icon of St. George (XII century), belonged to the Yur'ev Grand Duke's Monastery. On this image is a good warrior from a list of right hand. On the new richly embellished branya. In the light of calm, masculine posture with indestructible strength.

On the cob XIII Art. the Yaroslavl school of icon painting became famous. At the monasteries and churches of Yaroslavl, a lot of miraculous icon-painting works were written. Especially seen among them is the so-called "Yaroslavl Oranta", which depicted the Mother of God. The prototype was the mosaic image of the Mother of God at the Sophia Cathedral near Kiev, the robots of the Greek masters, as if they knew the Suvora sovereign woman, who stretched out her hands over the people. The Yaroslavl Maistry made the image of the Mother of God warmer, more human. Tse nasampered mother intercessor, as if bringing people to help that spivchutya. The Byzantines celebrated the Mother of God in their own way, Russian artists - in their own way.

c) The warehouse art of Russia was more musical, more spiritual. At the "Word about Igor's Departure" there is a legendary op-ed-spivak Boyan, who "twisted" his fingers on the living strings and stench "the princes themselves glorified the glory". harp. Z litopisnyh podomlen vіdomiy talanovitiy spіvak Mіtus u Galichi. In some church works, straightened out against the words of the Yang pagan mysticism, street buffoons, spivaks, dancers are guessing; founding the folk theater of lyalok. It seems that at the court of Prince Volodymyr, at the courts of other Russian Volodarians, at the hour of benquets in attendance, they celebrated spivaki, opovidachi, vikonavtsi on stringed instruments.

At the spring, bed, funeral songs, a lot of pictures of the life of the people of that hour were sung. So, in the ancient spring songs, it was said about the hour when the names were stolen "died" (well, for the future), in the old ones - if they were taken, and in the songs already at the Christian hour it was said about the year and the name, and the father on schlyub.

The culture of Russia to the Mongolian pile can be mentally subdivided into culture:

• - Skhidnogo slov'yanstva;
• - Kievan Rus;
• - The period of fragmentation.

The culture of similar words was Yazichnitsky, started as a cult of nature, and it has small characteristic features of fallow land in the field of roztashuvannya - one for Podniprov'ya, another - for Pivnichno-Skhidnoy Rus, the third - for pivnіchno-zahіdnih lands. The Slovyans-pagans planted thick forests, swedish rivers, "sacred" stones. Yak naming the historian B.A. Ribakov: “The old-timer’s word was given that there were leather houses near the village ... under the patronage of the spirit, who looked after the thinness, guarding the fire in the middle and at night going out of the rudeness of half-dressing the offerings, depriving you of the dbaylivy master. At the skin sheep, in the secret light of the underground pit, the souls of the ancestors lingered, who died. The skin is alive and it was alive, that stuck with the people, was endowed with special rice ... If Christianity appeared in Russia, it thrived on such a steadfast agricultural religion, which was formed for centuries, with such mіtsnimi pagan viruvannyam. .” The progress of the penetration of Christianity (especially in the economically developed regions) led to the destruction of the old traditions of the pagan world with Christian culture. To this day, vishivkas and folk art preserved the remnants of the pagan cultures of the Slavic earth-working tribes to this day. Є stinks and in deyaky prikmetah, vіruvannyah, zabobonah і etc.

There are no monuments of old Slavonic architecture to us, although we can talk about the wide expansion of wooden life in pagan Russia (fortresses, palaces were the most prominent inhabitants of the word, palaces; the pagan temples were sporadzhuly). Donin and yazichnitsky idols were not used (vinyatka represents the titles of the Zbruch idol of the 9th century, found near the river Zbruch, near Gusyatyn, the land of the ancient Volynians).

On the culture of Kievan Rus, there was a significant injection of the tradition of Christian Byzantium. Unfortunately, most of the national recession of the era of Volodymyr I and Yaroslav the Wise has not been preserved to this day. Tse we are standing in front of litopisiv, as if they were under fire at the fire of the war and bulk.

In the world of growing feudal fragmentation in Russia, the formation of mystic cultural and mystical schools, which, with all their independence, take the culture of Kievan Rus as the basis.

Writing and writing.

Writing in Russia was also introduced to Christianity by Prince Volodymyr. Negotiated by Oleg and Byzantium, statutes in 911 r. About rozvsyudzhennya writings to certify the manifestations of archaeologists at the hour of excavation at Gnizdov near Smolensk, a crock pot of earthenware, which can be seen up to the ear of the X century, on which is written "pear" (tobto utensils for spices). We saved the information about those that the letters in Russia were painted on wooden boards and called them roses. The year of a leaf on a tree was replaced by a leaf on birch bark. A great number of such birch bark letters were found during the excavations near Novgorod. Until now, letters have been found in other places: Smolensk, Moscow, Polotsk, Pskov. The inscriptions on the birch bark look different. The axis, for example, is a love message of the 12th century: “From Mikit to Ulyanits. Follow me. Yaz tbі want, but ti me. And for those rumors Gnat Moiseev ... "

(Mikita ask Ulyanitsa to come for a new zamіzh). Or another note: “And you, Repehu, listen to Domni” and instill hooliganism: “Ignorant writing, not thinking a goat, but who is this quote ...” (“Having written ignorantly, without thinking showing, but who reads ...” , Toy ...).

Archaeologists also revealed craftsmen's robes, on some different inscriptions (women signed spindle whorls - clay kiltsya, as if they were dressed on a spindle; shevets virizav on the well was the names of their deputies). Tse allow you to put a sum of money, look at how wide-ranging they were in the Radyansk period, which means that writing is less in the minds of class society, and literacy in this period was less famous.

A wide breadth in Russia was nabula word'yansk letter - word'yansk alphabet, creations by missionary brothers from the Greek city of Thessaloniki - Cyril and Methodius. The brothers worked hard for the enlightenment of the words of the Yang peoples of Europe, including Russia, for the expansion of Christianity, and the translation of the liturgical books of the words of the Yang my. Obidva was canonized by the Orthodox Church.

Vcheni vvazhayut, that Cyril and Methodius created the dissimilar alphabet (glagolitic), victorious in the creation of the alphabet and ancient words of the Janskian letters. In their own line, the glagolitic alphabet was not barred by the transformations of the walnut leaf, and the “Cyrillic alphabet” appeared, which is worthy of my dosi (it was forgiven by Peter I and once again - 1918).

A significant injection into the development of culture was injected into Christianity. At once, with a new viroy, an attempt was made to adopt the Gromadyan culture of the Greeks and that knowledge among the various galuzyahs. With this method, schools were started, the children of the poorest hromadas were bred to the beginning, they were brought to Kiev “two medni bovduri and chotiri medni horses” (imovirno, monuments of ancient sculpture).

On the right, Volodymyr was followed by Yaroslav, who also created schools. About three hundred children have been trained in Kiev, about which to tell the dzherelo: “From the headmen and priestly children, 300 learn books.”

Yaroslav also continued the traditions of everyday life of the church and created artists from Greece. Yaroslav was engaged in translating Greek books, having fallen asleep in the Russian library. Behind the Vistula chronicle, Volodymyr "wondered and remembered" the Russian land, enlightened її christenings, and blue yogo "sowed the hearts of faithful people with bookish words." Transcribers and translators came to Russia. Books of religious sermons were read at the princely and boyar families, in monasteries, and at the middle of the merchants and remіsnikіv. Nabuli widened life of Oleksandr the Great (“Olexandria”), “The Tale of the Ruins of Jerusalem” Joseph Flavius, Byzantine Chronicles, etc.

The first Russian diplomats appeared at schools, clerks at churches, and those at monasteries. A bunch of children from rich families were lured there at the order of the princes. Later, at schools, they began to read like boys, and girls.

To the development of literacy and writings, which were saved on the walls of cathedrals - graffiti. Most of them begin with the words “God help me ...” (following the text of the prohannya). Graffiti XI century. on the wall of Sophia Cathedral over the sarcophagus, who buried Yaroslav, she allowed to establish that the princes of Kiev were called the royal title.

The most important historical dzherel is the chronicle. A bunch of stench thought like a weather forecast for the most important pods in Russia. Later they changed into artistic and historical creations, becoming a significant manifestation of the spiritual culture of Russia. The stinks looked at the authors of the history of Russia and the history of the world, the activity of the princes, the stench avenged philosophical and religious thoughts. A lot of what we know today about Old Russia, gleaned from chronicles.

From time to time, historical reports about the actions of the princes were recorded. Another litopis appeared, if Yaroslav the Wise united Russia under his rule. Vaughn hit that led the way to the last historical path of Russia, which ended the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. At what stage of the creation of Russian chronicles, their peculiarity was revealed: the skin advancing literary star included the frontal forward movement. The author of the chergovy litopisu acted as a layman, the editor and the ideologist, giving the podia a positive assessment, adding a clear point to the text.

One more lithographic crypt appeared - “The Story of Temporary Years”, folded by Nestor, a native of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, on the cob of the XII century. In this chronicle, Nestor speaks as a champion of the unity of the Russian lands, suing princely strife. Earlier written Russian literary monuments, and other translations of Byzantine materials served as dzherel for "Povisti". On the sides of the chronicle, which starts from the beginning, in which it is told about the biblical flood, you can read about the march of the Slavic tribes, the foundation of Kiev, about the rebellion, the vbivvaniya of the princes and boyars toshchoo. From it we know about the bribe

Oleg of Tsargorod, the tragic death of Oleg “in the form of a horse”, in the battle of Igor and vengeance of Olga to the Drevlyans, the wars of Svyatoslav, the princely vanity of Volodymyr is too thin. Weather records begin from 852 rubles, if "Ruska land began to be heard." Acts of weather records that were saved in the "Post of temporary years" can be preserved until the end

X Art. The first lithographical crypts in Russia began to be created in the first half of the 11th century, but before us the crypts were less than the other half

XI century, and those at the warehouse of written texts.

For Volodymyr Monomakh for yoga mandate at 1116 p. chronicle of Nestor's copying and editing by the abbot Sylvester. Dії Monomakh and yoga sіm'ї were given special seats, shards of can-owners were already given great value the way the stench looked on the sides of the chronicle, and poured into the creativity of the chroniclers. Years later, the litopis was edited by an unknown author in 1118. at the behest of Volodymyr Monomakh's son, Mstislav Volodymyrovich.

Litopisny crypts were carried out near the great centers, for example, near Novgorod (these materials were also victorious in the "Post of Time Lit"). In the world of political disintegration of Russia, the emergence of okremy princedoms-states did not accept the writing of letters. In the princedoms, lithographical crypts were conducted, as they told about the life of the land, they glorified the deeds of the princes of the princes. The chroniclers of the Russian princedoms began obov'yazkovo from the "Povisti temporal litas" and conducted a sermon before the resurrection of their lands from Kiev. Let's talk about the missionaries. Chronicles of leather from the lands are taken one kind of one. Z'library of lithographic crypts appeared.

Litopisnі create zzvychichay were called either for the misery, de stinks were saved, or on the name of the author or the learned, who knows them. The Іpatiїvsky litopis is named so to the one that was revealed in the Іpatiїvsky monastery near Kostroma. Lavrentiyevsky Litopis (1377) - in honor of Chents Lavrenty, who wrote її for the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince.

The emergence of old-Russian literature was mind-boggling to the centers of writing and literacy. We first introduce to us the literary creation of Rus є "Word about the Law and Grace" of the Metropolitan Ilarion(40 pp. XI century), the main idea of ​​which was the equality of Russia with other Christian peoples and powers, and with Byzantium. In "Words..." Ilarion showed his own look at the history of Russia, at the significant role of Christianity in the formation of the role of Volodymyr and Yaroslav the Wise in the share of the Russian state.

In the other half of the XI century. Winickles and other literary and journalistic creations. In "Memory and Praise of Volodymyr", the black Yakiv described the role of Prince Volodymyr as sovereign fiance that Baptist of Russia. Opovіdі about the first expansion of Christianity in Russia and "The Tale of Boris and Glib" is dedicated to the history of early Christianity. The lives of Russian saints (named after Boris and Glib) have become a broader genre of ancient Russian literature. Written by an unknown author, for example XI - on the cob of the XII century. "The Tale of Boris and Gliba" came down to us in anonymous lists, the earliest of which date back to the 12th century.

You can see other works of art: the first venerable memoirs - "Learning for Children" by Volodymyr Monomakh, as well as "The Word" ("Prayer") Danila Zatochnik. At this hour, “The Walk of Hegumen Daniel at the Holy Mass” appeared, to whom the descriptions of the pilgrim’s path to Jerusalem, to the Holy Sepulcher, were reported. These road maps are written in an accessible way, they are described as a report description of nature, historical places, and church bearers, including those with cross-bearers. Igumen Danilo is considered to be the founder of the genre of road drawings, as in Russia they took away the name "walking". Up to our time, over 100 lists of "Daniel's Walk" have come.

The most important achievements of the old Russian literature are the “Word about the departure of Igor”, created for example in the XII century. The basis of the rozpovidi to become the rozpovid about the recent death of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians 1185 p. The poem became a rallying cry about the masculinity of the Russians, a call to the unity of the Russian land.

Architecture.

At once, from religion, that church architecture passed to Russia from Byzantium. The first Russian churches were built like Byzantine ones. The type of such a temple to ring is cross-dome. Tse titles walnut cross, tobto. a rectangle, close to a square, if chotiri, six or more stovpiv (stovpiv) a cross was established at the plan, a dome hung over it. The first church, founded by Prince Volodymyr on the hillock, where previously standing the idol of Perun, was the church of St. Basil near Kiev. Budіvlі buli derev'yanі (from oak; rіzblenі embellishment often robili z linden) chi wood-earthen. In the world, the development of Russian cities and the accumulation of riches in the future, in everyday life, stone and stone began to victorious more and more often. Kam'yanimi boules sound prince's palaces. Big temples of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. one-headed.

One of the first stone spores, built by walnut masters in 989-996, is the five-domed church in honor of the Mother of God, founded by Prince Volodymyr and also called the Church of the Tithes. She took this name away from the one who saw the church tithe on її morning. Vaughn was embellished with mosaics and wall paintings (frescoes). The foundation was taken care of, that and that closing of the pіznіshoї perebudova. The temple itself was destroyed during the hour of the Mongol-Tatar heap.

Sophia Cathedral near Kiev was conferred for Yaroslav the Wise. The new one had 25 divisions, 12 of them for the whole hour, unfortunately, wasted. Cathedral with frescoes and mosaics.

It was the same time that the Golden Gate at Kiev was sporudzheno. With these spores, the place, like a bi, encouraged its mission not to compromise the greatness of Constantinople. Following the everyday life of Sophia near Kiev, Sophia Cathedrals were sporadic in Novgorod and Polotsk, the Cathedral of the Savior near Chernigov was built. Sophia Cathedral near Novgorod (life in 1045-1052), a typical Byzantine church with a dome on four square pillars. Pіznіshі pribudovi that pereprobki took the first Byzantine character at the cathedral, giving it a Russian flavor: five gilded domes; white smooth walls without embellishment; colorful painting above the entrance.

The architecture was characterized by vigilance, rich layering, and presence in wakefulness and towers. Zhitlovy budinok buv otochny different kind of pribudov - cells, blues, transitions, drabinkas. Mustaches of wood were embellished with artistic decorations.

With the Christianity of Russia came the life of great temples. Sophia cathedrals near Kiev, Novgorod and Polotsk, the Transfiguration Cathedral near Chernigov were like that. As respectfully marveling at their sight, you can stomp that the stone architecture continued the traditions of Russian wooden architecture.

Miraculous architectural disputes were created during the period of political fragmentation of Russia.

Vidminnosti in the nature of architecture in the main boulevard po'yazanі z budіvelnym material, which vikoristovuєtsya in this chi іnshіy land. Near Kiev, Smolensk, Chernihiv, Ryazan, like before, there were plinths (thin chains). In Novgorod, the bud vapnyak was expanded with budіvelny material, and monumental strictness and simplicity of forms were used in the Novgorod architectural style. On the cob of the XII century. here the artil of Master Peter worked, arguing for the most important monuments of Novgorod - the cathedrals in the Antonivsky and Yur'ivsky monasteries. Jomu is credited with the creation of the Church of Mikoli on Yaroslav's Court. The church of the Savior on Nereditsa was built like a miraculous architectural reminder, blasted into the rocks of the war.

In Volodymyr-Suzdal and Galicia-Volinsky Rus, the main building material is white stone-vapnyak. A new wall was built from two rows of blocks, a gap between them filled with crushed stone and flooded with a happy rose. A white stone is more pliable in a robot, and if it makes a new sound, there are a small number of decorative details and embellishments.

Before the architectural monuments of Volodymyr-Suzdal Rus, savings can be seen to this day, even though the cathedrals near Volodymyr seem to be restored for an hour; the relics of the palace of Prince Andriy in Bogolyubov - one of the poor civilian (secular) stones, which often reached us in the pre-Mongolian hour; cathedrals of Pereyaslavl-Zalisk, Suzdal, Yur'eva-Polsky.

The headlines of the architecture of the earth were formed for the reign of Andriy Bogolyubsky. At a new time, the white-stone gates were arranged, for a long tradition they were called Golden and were the main entrance to the city. Tsya sporuda was small looking like a choti-faced vezhі with a high arched opening and stashed under it with a fighting maidan. Near the center of the Maidanchik was the Church of the Order of the Mother of God. The gates were made with oak doors, as if they were bound with gilded meddu. Stars at 1158-1160 pp. The head temple of Volodymyr - the Cathedral of the Assumption has become a symbol for everyday life of the Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Back to the hour of Andriy Bogolyubsky, one-headed wine, richly chipped with gold. Here the icon of the Mother of God was vivesen by Andriyem, as if under the name of Volodymyrskaya, the boulder was widely shanoved in Russia as miraculous. At the cathedral, there was a library, a literary writing was carried out. To this day, paintings have been preserved, vikonan in two and a half centuries after the Cathedral on the walls of the well-known icon painter of Old Russia. Andriyem Rublov. The cathedral became the place of rest for Andriy Bogolyubsky, his brother Vsevolod and other members of the prince's house. The facade of the cathedral is embellished with heads (masks) of levіv, in the inter'єri of the white spring arches there are young figures of levіv, which lie down, similar figures can be seen in the inter'єri of the Dmitrіvskiy Cathedral and the Church of the Intercession on Nsrlі. Similar love to the image of the king of animals in Volodymyr-Suzdal Rus is not vipadkovy - this creature is small in the eye of the kilka interpreting: the symbol of the Evangelist, the symbol of Christ, the special power and strength.

Following orders, the foundation of the zamіska residence of Prince Andriy was built with the cult of the icon of the Mother of God of Volodymyr. The horses that were carrying the icon, when turning to Suzdal, chirped uncomfortably and did not want to go further. Todi Andriy, having risen here for nothing, for orders, after praying to the Mother of God, she ordered me to visit the monastir in the same place (the name of the place is Bogolyubovo).

Roztashovan for 10 miles from Volodymyr, the residence of Prince Andriy was richly embellished. To this day, only one of the vezh іz gvintovy descents that arched passage from the tsієї vezhі to the Cathedral of the Rizdva Bogoroditsi was saved from the prince's palace (for the cathedral of Andriy Bogolyubsky, the icon of the Bogolyubіvskaya Mother of God was preserved, which was saved and dosi).

Not far from Bogolyubov Boulevard, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl was built (1165), which has been preserved to this day, planted on a small hillock in the middle of flooded onions. The prince punished to wake up after the death of his beloved son Izyaslav, who died so young at the hour of the campaign near Volzka Bulgaria. On the top of the skin from the three facades of the church there are stones carved - the biblical king David from the harp of images among the lions and birds.

Following the order of Vsevolod the Great Nest, the Russian masters argued not far from the Assumption Cathedral near Volodymyr's Dmitrovsky Cathedral (1194-1197). That’s right, it’s the palace temple of the prince, who was named Dmitry at the christening. The gilded dome is topped with an openwork cross and a weather vane that looks blue (a symbol of the Holy Spirit). A lot of embellishments to the stone decorations of the temple reveal the posters of images of lions, centaurs, bars, weaving a chimeric ornament. At the central part of all three facades of the temple, the composition with the biblical king David was repeated, and above the left window of the pub, Prince Vsevolod is depicted, sitting on the throne in his sharpened blues. On the façade of the cathedral, we know a scene from a middle-aged legend - “The Fall of Oleksandr the Great”, which two lions raise up the hill, for which wines they hold with raised hands. “Temples (of the Volodymyr-Suzdal region) were embellished with rozrakhunka on those that the people would like to work with them, the holy people would know the hour and the watering of the robes of those modern embellishments and speed them up as an early nastanovy and church navchannyam”, - a writer N.P. Kondakov.“Wonderful Velms” swayed the cathedral to the ancient chronicler.

Near Suzdal, before the ascension of Volodymyr as the capital of the princedom, the most ancient monument of the city was saved - embellishments of the most beautifully cut white stones of the Rizdvyany Cathedral (1222-1225), which stands at home of two more older churches. At the pіvdennomu and zahіdny vestibules, two-studded doors were saved - “Golden Gate”, built in the 20-30s. XIII Art. by the method of fire gilding, when the plate is covered with black lacquer, and then the little ones on it turn up with a bark and lines are etched with acid. Far away the lines are filled with an amalgam of thin sheet gold and mercury, as if they evaporate in the heat that melts the gold. On the doors at the entrance porch are images of scenes that reveal the zmist of the New Testament and are associated with religious subjects.

The walls in the middle of the temple were decorated with frescoes (painting with water farbs on Syrian plaster) and mosaics. Fresco images of the blue and daughters of Yaroslav the Wise, depicting scenes of buffoons, mummers, and watering skinny. saved at Sophia of Kiev. Mosaic - images of or visor, made from shmatochkiv stone, marmur, ceramics, smalti. In Ancient Russia, mosaic images were collected from smalti - a special sklopodibny material. Long ago, in the old Russian art, having created a type of image of the Mother of God, which bears the name "Oranta" ("pray"), to stand at the Sophia of Kiev vikonana mosaic.

Art and folklore.

Painting, sculpture, music have experienced profound changes since the adoption of Christianity in Russia. Ancient carvings on wood and stone used to create sculptures of pagan gods and spirits. Buv vіdomy golden mustache wooden idol of Perun, like standing entrusted with the palace of Volodymyr I. The painters painted the walls of pagan prayers, prepared magical masks. Yazichnitsky mystectvo, like and pagan gods, were associated with the cult of nature.

Christian mysticism was under order for other purposes. Icons appeared (my Greek - “image”). So, just like frescoes and mosaics, the first icons in Russia were written by Greek masters. The most famous icon in Russia was the image of the Mother of God in her hands, vikonan by an invisible Greek painter at the turn of the XI-XII centuries. The bula was transferred by Andriy Bogolyubsky from Kiev to Volodymyr, and the name is “Volodymyrska Bogomatir”. This year the icon has become its own symbol of Russia (they are taken from the Tretyakov Gallery). Robotic icons of the Kiev-Pechersk Olympia Monastery made portraits of living people. The frescoes and mosaics of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev depicted the episodes of the life of the grand-ducal homeland, guessed about the busyness and the joys of ordinary people, among them they depicted the dances of buffoons.

In the past, around the Russian princedoms, their own art was formed. The Novgorod school of icon painting rejected the reality of the image. At the XIII century. the Yaroslavl school of painting became famous, the artists who painted the faces of the Mother of God and the saints on the icons. Wide-width nabuli icon painter and fresco painting near Chernigov, Rostov, Suzdal, Volodymyr. The fresco "The Last Judgment" at the Dmitriev Cathedral opposes its appearance. The Greek artist, who worked on her, sympathetically fought the Greeks for his type of figures of the apostles with the Byzantine style of writing such figures.

Carved on wood, and later on on stone, not only the temples of that life were embellished, but the home stuff. Long-time Russian jewelers achieved great craftsmanship, they made bracelets, earrings, buckles, medallions, namistos, brooches, dishes, fillings from gold, sreble, expensive stone and enamel. Vikonans with them were embellished with carbovanized and engraved vizerunk. Maistri relativly and maisterno created icon frames, embellished books, as if at that time they were rich and were of great value. One of these books was the Gospel of Ostromir, which has been preserved to this day. Vono bulo written at 1056-1057 pp. deacon Gregory on the zamovlennya posadnik Ostromir and to avenge relatively iconic images of miniatures.

The warehouse art of Russia was music. The Church did not sing praises of opovіdachi, spіvakіv, guslyarіv, dancers and retried their activity as an element of pagan rozvag.

Folklore is an important element of the old Russian culture - songs, opovids, bilini, syllables, orders, fairy tales, parts, fairy tales, rhymes, baits, lichilki, games. Batkivshchyna, chrestiny, looking after the Batkivka and the new people, fun, laying, funerals - all of them knew their own way in the songs. Adoption of Christianity was given as a sign for each other of life. Just as earlier in the spring songs they told about the stolen names, then in the songs of the Christian hour it was about the year and the name, and її batkіv on shlyub.

The whole world of Russian life is seen in biliny. Your main character is a hero, who is blessed with majestic physical strength and special enchanting vigor. The skin of the heroes of bilin - Illya Muromets, Volkhv Vseslavich, Dobrinya Mikitovich, the youngest of the heroes Alyosha Popovich - mother of his own character. A number of contemporary historians and philologists consider that the bilines have specific historical facts and positions, and that their opponents are convinced that the bilinn's heroes are more important than the choice of characters that they have in their own different chronological layers.

Significant development in those distant hours, the craft has grown. Behind academician B. A. Ribakov’s children, near old Russian places, the number of which at the time of the Mongol invasion was approaching 300, handicraftsmen practiced over 60 specialties. Apparently, for example, that Russian forgers robbed castles that were famous in Europe; These locks were made up of more than 40 parts. Knives were peeled like a great drink, which are self-sharpening, which were formed from three metal plates. The Russian craftsmen became famous, they were engaged in casting bells, jewelers, clerks. From the middle of the X century. There was a wide variety of varieties of pottery, rich pottery, woodworking objects and shkiri. Significant development of the variety of armor: chain mail, prickly swords, shabel. It was wider and the variety of various embellishments, up to which lay earrings, heels, namista, pidviski-kolti thinly.

Culture of Russia of the pre-Mongolian period

The culture of Russia in the pre-Mongolian period includes the epoch from the 9th to the 13th centuries, apparently from the establishment of the Old Russian state to the Mongol-Tatar heap. The basis of any culture is the accumulation of the accumulated knowledge of the previous generations. Speaking about Old Russia, we can take into account the words of the Jansk pagan culture. Significantly the most significant features of pre-Christian words of the Jansk culture: The pre-semny character of culture Rich folklore Good faith polytheism Fortress of communal links The presence of stone everyday life Apparently, the Christianization of the Old Russian state followed the Byzantine spirit. At the same time, it is necessary to clearly understand that the Byzantine infusion, let's just copy - Christian traditions and other cultural features have settled in Russia with the synthesis of the word'yan culture.

Writing

The first and most recent legacy of the adoption of Christianity was the expansion of Russian words and letters. The founders of the words of the Jansk alphabet in 863 were the Byzantine Chants Cyril and Methodius. The authorship is confirmed by the dzherel, for example, the essay “About the Letters” by Chornoriztsya Khrabr: “Holy Kostyantin the Philosopher, named Cyril ... having created letters for us and translated books, and Methodius, brother Yogo.”

Later, after the adoption of Christianity in Russia, writing expanded, for us, it was necessary for the assimilation of religious literature and the conduct of divine services.

Literature

With the development of writing, the literature of the Old Russian state reached a high level. More importantly, the lives of the saints and other religious texts were folded, and the ancient literature was also translated. Its old Russian literature appeared in the XI century. From the pre-Mongolian hour, about 150 books reached us. The most recent among them is the Ostromir Gospel. Vono bulo written at 1056-1057 pp. for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir, in the name of which he took away his name. Todi was written on parchment (in the past, yoga was called haratya, shkira, khutro). Parchment was made, as a rule, from a specially rolled veal skin. The text began to be written in the great red letters - headpieces (find out the viraz "writing from the red row"). Books were often embellished with little ones, which are called miniatures. The bound leaves of the book were bound, laying between two boards, as if they were covered with a shkir (zvіdsi viraz “read from the board to the board”). Books were costly, they were diligently saving them, passing them on like a part of the fall. Widely spread in Russia, nabula was translated literature as a religious, and secular zmist. The famous “Olexandria” lay until the end, as it told about the exploits and life of Oleksandr the Great, as well as “The Tale of the Ruining of Jerusalem” by Josip Flavius, the Byzantine Chronicles and others. old Russian authors. At the sight of the European literary mine bula latin, in Russia they wrote native language. Kievan Rus created low-profile literary creations. Among the genres of old Russian literature, the first place is the litopis. Historians see a sprinkling of lithographic crypts, as if they were reblowing the creation of the most famous lithograph of Old Russia - "The Time of Time Lit", folded by Nestor, a resident of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, on the cob of the XII century. In the literary period of fragmentation, there was a clear idea of ​​the decline of the Russian land for the hours of the Kievan state. The chroniclers of the Russian princedoms began with the "Posti temporal litas" and conducted a sermon before the resurrection of their lands from Kiev. Let's talk about the missionaries. Chronicles of skin from the lands come out one kind of one: like a heroic chronicle of the war, the “Pskov Chronicle” is accepted; the description of the princely strife is reminiscent of the litopis of the Galicia-Volinsky land (“Ipatiivsky litopis”); The chronicle of Novgorod is its own chronicle. The idea of ​​a single and strong grand duke's power is characteristic of the chronicle of Volodymyr-Suzdal land (“Lavrentievskiy chronicle”). Different literary creations were called either for the purpose, or the stench was saved, or on the name of the author, or the learned one, who knew them. For example, "Ipatiivsky litopis" is named so to the one that was revealed in the monastery of the same name near Kostroma. The Lavrentievsky Litopis is named after Chance Lavrentiy, who wrote yoga for the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince. The life stories of Russian saints have become the most expanded genre of ancient Russian literature. One of the most famous in Russia was the "lives" of the princes Boris and Glib, who were killed by brother Svyatopolk during the international struggle in 1015. Among the publicistic works in one of the first months of the old Russian literature, the “Word about Law and Grace” of the Kiev Metropolitan Hilarion of the 11th century was borrowed, the main idea of ​​which was the equality of Russia with the other Christian peoples, the powerful powers Among the most famous creations of that hour, they should be called “Povchannya dіtyam” by Volodymyr Monomakh, “Word” and “Prayer” by Danil Zatochnik and others. strong princely rule, pride in your people and that country. The most important tvir of the period of petty disintegration is the immortal “Word about the departure of Igor”, the pride of our literature. Along with written literature, a wide development of folk art has come to fruition, and we are before the famous bilini, who admonish about the heroic struggle of the people against nomads, about yoga I create labor.

osvita

homemade rice Associations of Ancient Russia - expanded literacy. Birch-trees of knowledge, among the great number of people in Novgorod, show that the level of literacy is high among the different levels of the population, including children and women. Naturally, in the order of the simple people, the blessings of the rulers, found the butt - Yaroslav the Wise.

architecture

The development of architecture at the cob stage of the Old Russian state was under the influence of Byzantium. First, the life of the stone has expanded. In another way, in Russia they adopted the form of the temple - the cross-dome type. However, then the architecture began to produce more and more self-made rice. The Church of the Tithes and the Cathedral of Sophia near Kiev became the butts of the Byzantine infusion. And the St. Sophia Cathedral near Novgorod, founded under the stonework of the son of Yaroslav the Wise Volodymyr, is a vision of the savory pivnichnoy Russian architecture. With the ruins of fragmentation in the state, architecture became a daedal variant: the skin of the prince rіdshav about his land.

Imaginative art

The technique of figurative art in Russia also came from Byzantium. One of the most famous was the icon of the Mother of God of Volodymyr, also Byzantine. The Іm'ya Olympia of the Caves specializes in the development of the venerable icon painting, authorship, perhaps, the icon of Yaroslavl Orant. The Novgorod school of icon painting showed such masterpieces as the icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands and the Angel of Gold.

The walls in the middle of the temple were decorated with frescoes and mosaics. The fresco is a painting with water farbs on Syrian plaster. Fresco images of the blue and daughters of Yaroslav the Wise, scenes of scenes of buffoons, mummers, and watering were saved by Sophia of Kiev. Mosaic - images of or visor, made from shmatochkiv stone, marmur, ceramics, smalti. In Ancient Russia, mosaic images were collected from smalti - a special sklopodibny material. The majestic posting of Our Lady of Oranti, as a prayer for the people, in Sophia of Kiev is engraved on the mosaic. Icons with the necessary color of the temples (from the Greek Eikōn - image, image). The icons of that hour, as a rule, belonged to the temples and were made great. So, just like frescoes and mosaics, the first icons in Russia were written by Greek masters. The most famous icon in Russia was the image of the Mother of God in her hands, vikonan by an invisible Greek painter at the turn of the XI-XII centuries. This icon took away the name of the Mother of God of Volodymyr and became a symbol of Russia (one of them is taken from the Tretyakov Gallery). It was miraculously far away for the artist to convey the folded, super-cheerful din of a young woman-mother: the joy of motherhood, the lower pity of her child and at once the feeling of torment, like a check for a child. Volodymyrska Bozha Matir is one of the most accomplished works of light art. Significant successes in painting were achieved by Russian masters. We know the names of Russian icon painters of the XI century. - Alimpii, Olisey, Georgiy ta іn. From the establishment of independent princes-powers, painting was formed by masters of art schools, which were inspired by one and the same manner of painting and color scheme. The monumental sculpture of the pagan clocks did not develop a significant design, the shards of the Orthodox Church stalked in nіy naduvannya about the thrown off idols of that pagan vіra. Natomіst wide nabula carvings on wood and stone, especially in the adornment of the walls of temples. The wooden sculptural images of the saints were surrounded by a vipadkovy character and were revisited by the Orthodox Church. (The first svitskie sculptural monuments in Russia were less likely to be found in the 18th century.) As the development of the economy, the socio-political struggle allow vysnovki to be made about the wild crossover of the historical process, the ryven of culture clearly shows the result of this process. In this plan, the Russian culture is enriched in the period of fragmentation, if the foundations of the culture of Ancient Russia are formed by the artistic schools, it is a sign of the development of Russia along the vishіdnіy line. One of the most important foundations for the development of Kievan Rus and the princely powers during the period of fragmentation, their culture was formed by the old Russian nationality. It is characterized by a single language, a visible political unity, a sacred territory, the closeness of material and spiritual culture, the unity of a historical root.

Craft

The craft has taken away the essential development of those distant hours. Behind academician B. A. Ribakov’s children, near old Russian places, the number of which at the time of the Mongol invasion was approaching 300, handicraftsmen practiced over 60 specialties. Apparently, for example, that Russian forgers robbed castles that were famous in Europe; These locks were made up of more than 40 parts. Knives were peeled like a great drink, which are self-sharpening, which were formed from three metal plates, and the middle plate was reinforced with greater hardness. Russian craftsmen also became famous, who were engaged in casting bells, jewelers, and clerks. From the middle of the X century. There was a wide variety of varieties of pottery, rich pottery, woodworking objects and shkiri. Significant rozvytovanie nabulnitstvo zbroї - chain mail, prickly swords, shabel. In the XII-XIII centuries. crossbows and faceted arrows appeared before them.

Usna folk art

During the period of the struggle against the Mongol conquerors, that golden yoke of savagery was up to bilint and the warnings of the Kievan cycle, in which the battles against the gates of Ancient Russia were described in such farbs, and the feat of arms of the people was famous, gave the Russian people new strength. The ancient bilini gained a deep sense, healed other lives. New legends (like, for example, “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh” - a place that went to the bottom of the lake at once with its good defenders, that they did not give up to the enemies, and became invisible to them), called the Russian people to fight for the fallen hated golden yoke. There is a genre of poetic historical songs. Before them lie "The Song about Shchelkan Dudentievich", which tells about the rebellion in Tver in 1327.

Litopis

Zavdyaky gospodarskom pіdyom daedalі vаlіvіshimi mіlіvіshmi mіlovі records. Z XIV Art. we begin to win papyrus instead of expensive parchment. The growth of the needs of the records, when the paperman appeared, they caused an urgent letter. To change the "statute", if the letters square shape were written out with geometric accuracy and urochististyu, come napivustav - more vіlniy i shvidky sheet, and from the XV century. z'yavlyaєtsya cursive, close to modern writing. A row of papers in especially important vipadkas continued to parch the parchment, variously seen black and butt notes scrambled, as before, on birch bark.

Interest in the all-world history, pragnennya to mark their place among the peoples of the world called out the appearance of chronographs - creations from the all-world history. The first Russian chronograph was built in 1442. Pahomієm Logofetom.

Historical background

Let's expand the literary genre at that time to be historical stories. They spoke about the activity of real historical events, specific historical facts and facts. The story was often part of a literary text. Wide popularity before Kulikivska, they got the story “About the battle on Kaltsi”, “A story about the ruin of Ryazan by Bati”, a story about Oleksandr Nevsky and other.

A brilliant retelling of Dmitri Donskoy in 1380 assignments of a cycle of historical stories (for example, “The Tale of the Battle of Mamaeva”). Sofoniy Ryazanets, having created the famous pathetic poem "Zadonshchina", prompted for a moment "Words about the departure of Igor". And just as in the “Word” the defeat of the Russians was described, then in the “Zadonshchina” - their victory.

During the period of consolidation of Russian lands, near Moscow, the genre of life literature was developed. The talented writers Pakhomiy Logofet and Epiphanius of Wisdom composed the writings of the greatest church deacons of Russia: Metropolitan Peter, who transferred the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezkiy, the founder of the Trinity-Sersheva monastery, and the prince of Moscow.

"Walk beyond three seas" (1466-1472) by the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. Athanasius Nikitin made his own dear 30 years before the opening of the road to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.

architecture

Earlier, lower in other lands, the stone life was reminiscent of Novgorod and Pskov. Vikoristovuyuschie ancient traditions, Novgorodians and Pskovians built dozens of small temples outside the world. There is a large number of decorative embellishments on the walls; Yaskrava and self-propelled architecture of Novgorod and Pskov changed little by the stretch of the century. The stability of the architectural and mystical flavors of the fakhivtsy is explained by the conservatism of the Novgorod boyars, who, having saved the independence of Moscow, are. Zvіdsi orientation by the head rank of mystic traditions.

The first stone life of the Moscow princedom dates back to the XIV-XV centuries. The temples that came to us in Zvenigorod - the Assumption Cathedral (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimir. Accumulations dosvіd allowed successfully vikonati most important zamovlennya Grand Duke of Moscow - create the mighty, spovnenie greatness, goodness and power of the Moscow Kremlin.

The first white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were sung for Dmitri Donskoy in 1367. However, after that Tokhtamish was piled on in 1382. Kremlin fortifications suffered greatly. After a century of grandiose life in Moscow with the participation of the Italian masters, who occupied the same place in Europe, ended with the creation of for example XV - the beginning of the XVI century. to the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, so that the donina was saved.

R. 1475-1479 letters of spores head cathedral Moscow Kremlin - Assumption. The majestic five-headed Cathedral of the Dormition was the largest building of that hour. Here the kings were crowned the kingdom, Zemsky cathedrals were elected, the most important decisions of the state were voiced.

In 1481-1489 vols. The Pskov maystrs called the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral - the house church of the Moscow sovereigns. That same bula was roused by the Granovita Chamber (1487-1491). The type of "facets" that embellished the beautiful walls, won't take away its name. The faceted chamber was part of the royal palace, and also a throne room. Here the kings of foreign ambassadors were presented, they held receptions, they praised important decisions.

painting

The zlittya of the artistic schools of the Zagalnorossiysk posterigalos and painting. That is true buv trival process, which is traced in the 16th and 17th centuries.

At the XIV century. near Novgorod and Moscow, the miraculous artist Feofan the Greek, who came from Byzantium, was born. The fresco paintings of Theophanes the Greek, which have come down to us, in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Illina Street are reverberated by superhuman strength, expression, asceticism, and the upliftment of the human spirit. Theophanes the Greek, having died with strong long strokes of his penzle, with sharp “breaks”, create an emotional strain, as if reaching tragedy. The Russians came specially to guard Theophan the Greek for the robot. Glyadachiv objected, the great master wrote his creations, not vicarist icons.

The greatest undertaking of the Russian icon-painting art is associated with the work of the contemporary Theophan the Greek - the brilliant Russian artist Andriy Rublov. It's a pity that Mayzha did not save the information about the life of a well-known master.

Andriy Rublov is alive between the XIV-XV centuries. His creativity was inspired by the miraculous victory on the Kulikovo field, the economic growth of Moscow Russia, the growth of the self-confidence of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, inner strength, that strength, ideas of unity for the world among people, human spirit were born in the works of the artist. Harmoniously, softly, the lower, pure farb creates the defeat of the wholeness and completeness of the images. The Trinity is famous (taken from the Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the pinnacles of light art, incorporating the main drawings and principles of the pictorial manner of Andriy Rublov. Thorough images of the Trinity symbolize the thought about the unity of the world of that people.

Brushes by A. Rublov also include fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral near Volodymyr, which have come down to us, icons of the Zvenigorod rank (stored in the Tretyakov Gallery), the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad.

Culture in the XVI century

Religious svetoglyad, as before, signified the spiritual life of the soul. Great role tsomu zіgrav і Stoglavy Cathedral 1551 r. Vіn regulating the art, having hardened the eyes, it was necessary for them to follow. Andriy Rublov's creativity was formally voiced like a star in painting. Ale mali on the vase is not an artistic expression of yogo painting, but iconography - the embellishment of figures, the chanting of the song color is thin. skin-specific plot and images. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was taken for granted, in literature - the work of Metropolitan Makariy that yoga jacket.

At the XVI century. the formation of the Great Russian nationality is being completed. In the Russian lands, which were in the warehouse of the single power, the daedals were larger than the sleepy ones, they showed up in the mov, pobuti, zvichayah, zvichayah thinly. At the XVI century. vіdchutnіshe, nizh if, vyyavlyalis svіtskі elements in culture.

Litopis

At the XVI century. Russian literature continued to develop. The “Chronicler of the Ear of the Kingdom” belongs to the works of this genre, which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and brings the need for the establishment of royal power in Russia. The other great work of that hour was the Book of Stupinna of the Tsar's Ancestral Family. Portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans at their roztashovani behind 17 steps - from Volodymyr I to Ivan the Terrible. Similar roztashuvannya and encouragement to the text symbolizes the inviolability of the union of the church and the king.

At the 16th century Moscow lithographers prepared a magnificent lithographic crypt, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - so the titles of the Nikonivsky litopis (in the XVII century, lying to Patriarch Nikon). One of the lists of Nikon's litopis is about 16 thousand. miniatures - color illustrations, for which he removed the name of the Facial Crypt ("disguise" - image).

A number of historical writings were taken away from the literature, in some cases it was told about the next hour. (“Kazan Capture”, “About the arrival of Stefan Batoriya in the place of Pskov”, etc.) New chronographs were being created. About the pacification of culture, a book was written at the same time, which avenges the different variations of the curiosity both in the spiritual and in the worldly life - "Domobud" (at the translation - home economics), the author of which is respected by Sylvester.

cob of friendship

The beginning of Russian friendship was accepted in 1564, when the book "Apostle" was dated by the first Russian leader Ivan Fedorov. Prote є sіm books without exact date of seeing. Tse zvani anonymi - books, seen before 1564. The organization works for the creation of other peoples, having engaged one of the most famous Russian people of the 16th century. Ivan Fedorov. Drukarska robots, rozpochati in the Kremlin, were transferred to Mikilskaya street, de zbuduvalya special wake-up call for drukars. Okrim religious books Ivan Fedorov and yoga assistant Petro Mstislavets in 1574 Lviv issued the first Russian primer - "Azbuka". For the entire XVI century. in Russia, by the Drukar method, only 20 books were seen. The handwritten book occupied a large space in the 16th and 17th centuries.

architecture

One of the most prominent manifestations of the development of Russian architecture was the life of hipped temples. Shatrov temples do not make the middle of the stovpiv and the whole mass of life stays on the foundation. The most famous monuments to this style are the Church of the Ascension near the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the people of Ivan the Terrible, Pokrovsky Cathedral (St. Basil the Blessed), and in honor of the capture of Kazan.

Inshim directly from the architecture of the XVI century. the life of the great five-headed monastic temples was in front of the Cathedral of the Assumption in Moscow. Similar temples were sporudzhenі in rich Russian monasteries and like head cathedrals - near the largest Russian places. The largest sights are the Assumption Cathedral at the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Monastery, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other places.

Yet another directly in the architecture of the XVI century. there was a life of small stone and wooden town temples. The stinks were the centers of the settlements inhabited by craftsmen of singing specialty, and were attached to the singing saint - the patron saint of this craft.

At the XVI century. there was a wide life of stone Kremlins. At the 30th anniversary of the XVI century. immediately lay down to the Moscow Kremlin, part of the settlement of the boulder was surrounded by a cellar wall, called Kitaigorodskaya - place, or from Turkic - fortress). The wall of Kitai-Mist stole the bargaining on Chervoniy Square and Dovkolishni Sloboda.

painting

The greatest Russian painter who lived in the 15th - early 16th centuries, Dionisiy. Before the work, which lay a penzle, one can see the fresco painting of the Rizdvy Cathedral of the Ferapont Monastery near Vologda, an icon depicting scenes from the life of the Moscow Metropolitan Oleksiy and іn. The paintings of Dionisiya were of the Taman nadzvichayna jaskravist, svyatkovist, vyshukanist, such wines are available. zastosovuyuchi so priyomi like lowering the proportions of the human body, thinness in the sample of the skin details of the icon or fresco.

TROUBLES

The fall of Ivan the Terrible Fedir I Ivanovich (since 1584) was not a building to the right of government, but a young son, Tsarevich Dmitro, was unmoved. After the death of Dmitri (1591) and Fedor (1598), the ruling dynasty stumbled, the boyars' canopies hung on the stage - Zakhar'ini-(Romanov), Godunov. In 1598 Boris Godunov took the throne.

Three rocks, from 1601 to 1603 pp., were neurogenic, frosts did not stick in the summer months, and snow fell in the spring. Having vibrated a terrible famine, up to a pivmillion of people became victims of this. Masi flocked to the people to Moscow, distributing pennies and bread to the needy. However, if you come in, the government's disorganization has become stronger. The helpers couldn't make their serfs and servants go away and kicked them out of the sadib. People who lost their lives without support, turned to plunder and robbery, aggravating chaos. Okremі bandi grew to a few hundred people.

The cob of Trouble can be seen until a little stronger, the lawful Tsarevich Dmitro is alive, which made it clear that the rule of Boris Godunov is illegal and not good for God. On the cob in 1604, the impostor took away an audience with the Polish king and without a hitch adopted Catholicism. King Sigismund recognized the rights of the False Dmitry to the Russian throne and allowed the rest of us to help the prince. For tse False Dmitry declared to transfer Poland to Smolensk and Siversky lands. For this year, lead Mnishek to the court of his daughter, the False Dmitry, that he also promised to transfer his name from Volodin Novgorod and Pskov. Mnishek ordered the impostor of the military, which was formed from the constipated Cossacks and the Polish recruits. In 1604, a group of military impostors crossed the cordon of Russia, a lot of towns (Moravsk, Chernigiv, Putivl) surrendered to False Dmitry. Prote іnshe vіysko, led by the Godunovs against the impostor, won the victory over the battle near Dobrinichi. The most prominent boyar in command of the Moscow military was Vasil Shuisky. At the end of the war, Boris Godunov died; Godunov's army, like trimal in the cloak of Krom, practically negainally changed his attacker, the 16-year-old Fyodor Borisovich, a kind of knock down and beaten at once with his mother.

In 1605, the impostor rotsі pіd zagalnu radіst urochisto entered Moscow. The Moscow nobility publicly recognized him as the legitimate sergeant-major and prince of Moscow. Ryazan Archbishop Ignaty, who was still in Tula, confirming Dmitri's rights to the kingdom, and became the head of the patriarch. Legitimate Patriarch Iov was removed from the patriarchal see and imprisoned in a monastery. Then Queen Martha was brought to the capital, who recognized her son as an impostor, and without a hitch, False Dmitry I was crowned the kingdom.

The reign of the False Dmitry was marked by an orientation towards Poland and by some attempts at reforms. Not all Moscow boyars recognized False Dmitry as the legitimate ruler. Mayzhe vіdrazu well after coming to Moscow, Prince Vasil Shuisky, through intermediaries, began to spread a bit about imposture. The voivode Petro Basmanov spoke out loud, and on 23 chervnya 1605 Shuisky was imprisoned and condemned to death, having pardoned the chopping block. Enlisting the support of the Novgorod-Pskov corral, standing under Moscow, as if preparing to march on the Crimea, Shuisky organized a coup.

At night from 16 to 17 May 1606, the fate of the boyars' opposition, scurrying to the anger of the Muscovites against the Polish adventurers, who came to Moscow for the wedding of the False Dmitry, rose up insurrection, at the hour of which the impostor was zhorstok beaten. The coming to power of the representative of the Suzdal region of Rurikovich, the boyar Vasil Shuisky, did not bring peace. The rebellion of Ivan Bolotnikov (1606-1607) fell on the pivdnі, which gave rise to the cob of the "villainous" revolution.

They didn’t smell a bit about the miracle of prince Dmitr’s order. In the fate of 1607, a new impostor appeared in Starodubі, a kind of leader in history, like False Dmitry II or “Tushinsky villain” (behind the name of the village of Tushino, de impostor roztashuvavsya camp, if he came to Moscow).

Popular Rukhs

Russian culture 17th century

The final stage in the history of Russian middle-class culture became the 17th century. At the same time, the process of "secularization" of culture began, the strengthening of the secular elements, democratic tendencies. The cultural ties with the lands of Western Europe gradually expanded and perished. Usі galuzі culture significantly folded and differentiated.

Russian literature of the 17th century.

Russian literature yak i bula is represented by journalistic creations, dedicated to governmental problems. The Troubled Hours increased interest to the point of informing about the nature of power in the political system. Among the most important authors of the XVII century. - Croat Yuriy Krizhanich, European consecration thinker, apprentice of an uncircumcised monarchy, one of the first theoreticians in the idea of ​​the word "Janian unity" (yogo can be called a champion of that theoretician of pan-Slavism). So, having taken into account that the role of slov'yanstva in the secular historical process is constantly growing, wanting to emphasize that image from the side of foreigners, especially Turks and Nimtsiv. I will especially emphasize the role of the future promotion of slov'yanstva vin leading Russia, as, having changed as a result of the reforms for a leading world power, I will involuntarily slander the words of the yansk and other people and their behavior in advance.

The ambiguity of the next hour has led to the fact that the writers are wondering about the superfluousness of the human character. As before, the heroes of the books were either absolutely kind, or absolutely evil, now writers instill free will in people, show their ability to change themselves in fallow conditions. The heroes of the Chronograph of 1617 p. - Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, Vasil Shuisky, Kuzma Minin. Yak appointing Academician D.S. Likhachov, who showed a tendency to reflect the character of a person: the heroes of literature become like holy ascetics and princes, like before, and just people- merchants, villagers, poor noblemen, who acted in easy situations.

The expansion of literacy in the 17th century. got to the stake chitachіv new generations of the population - provincial noblemen, serving that townspeople. Changes in the social structure of the public, what you read, hung new vimogi to literature. Such readers have a particular interest in reading the same kind of reading, the need for which was satisfied with the translations of the faces of the novels and the original adventure stories. Examples of the 17th century The Russian reading public knew up to a dozen works that had come to Russia from beyond the cordon with different ways. Among them, the most popular boules are “The Tale of Bov Korolevich” and “The Tale of Peter the Golden Keys”. Create on the Russian soil, save the deacons of the lychee novel, the floorings approached the kazka, which passed from folklore. The novelties of literary and real life were vividly manifested in the butt stories, the heroes of which jumped to life for their own will, rebuking the commandments of the old.

At the XVII century. Vinik is a new literary genre - democratic satire, closely tied to folk art and folk culture. Vaughn was created among the townspeople, clerks, the lower clergy, dissatisfied with the pressures of the feudal lords, the powers of the church. Zokrema, there were numerical parodies, for example, on the judiciary (“The Tale of Shemyakin Court”, “The Tale of Yrsha Yershovich”), on life create (“The Word about the Hawk Moth”).

People's faith has become a fiery rice of literary life. Before that, Russia knew poetry only from folk art - in biliny, but bilini were rimmed by verse. The poetry of the vinyl is rhymed under the influx of the Polish syllabic verse, for which characteristic is the same number of warehouses in a row, a pause in the middle of the row and the end of Rome, which stands for a single obov'yazkovym voice. Belarusian Simeon Polotsky became the founder. He was the court poet of Tsar Oleksiy Mikhailovich, putting together numerical recitations and monologues. Your task is to win at the one who creates the Novorossiysk literature and is rich in what is the fault of the mission of vicons. You create something ornamental, pictorial, inspire the idea of ​​“striking light”, the timidity of buttya. Polotsky exudes sensationalism, exaltation, impresses the reader as a form of cladding, as well as innocence, exotic information, as it appears. Such a “Vertograd is rich” is a kind of encyclopedia, in which thousands of rimmed texts are selected, in order to avenge data, knowledge is gleaned from various galluses - history, zoology, botany, geography, etc. For whom dostovіrnі vіdomosti interspersed with the mythological statements of the author.

The author's prose first appears in the same way in the XVII century; butt її є create Archpriest Avakum Petrov. Vіn having filled in about 90 texts, written at the end of my life in the mail. Among them is the famous "Life" - an emotional and promotional speech, as if you are fighting with your breadth and courage. In yoga books, the author is the hero of the creation, who would have been respected earlier with a display of pride.

Theatre in Russia, the grapes are blamed for the secular elements in the spiritual life of the community. The idea about the creation of the theater was born at the court stakes in the middle of the Khilniks in the European country. The chief role of this was played by Artamon Matveev, the head of the Ambassador's Order, who knows about the production of theatrical show in Europe. In Russia, there were no actors (dosvіd skomorokhіv, yakі at this hour they recognized the persecution, they were not fit), there were daily p'єsi. The actors and director Johann Gregory were known in the Nimets Sloboda. The first visit, which was a small success, was called "Artaxerxes action." The tsar buv laying enchantments tim, scho vdbuvalosya, scho marveling at the p'yesu for 10 years, not getting up from the month. The repertoire of the theater for an hour of yoga (1672-1676) was composed of nine performances on biblical subjects and one ballet. The characters of the Old Testament characters were given a picture of political malice and association with participation, which further strengthened the interest in the sight.

Russian painting of the 17th century.

painting did not give in so easily, like architecture, to worldly infusions, but the exaggeration of decorativeness posterizes here. On the one hand, here it is remembered that the old traditions, the canon, the desire for knowledge, the search for new moral norms, plots and images, and from the other side, try to turn the tradition into dogma, at all costs, save the old nedorkanny. That is why the iconography of the XVII century. represented by a number of main directives and schools.

In the first half of the history, the main super school in iconography was between two schools - Rouniv and Stroganov. Godunivska school was heavy until the traditions of the past. And yet, trying to follow the ancient canon, focusing on Andriy Rublov and Dionisiya made the composition less likely to be outrageous, overwhelmed. The Stroganov school (named so to that which impersonal creators of this style were commemorated on the Stroganovs) vinikla in Moscow, among the sovereign and patriarchal masters. characteristic rice The icons of the Stroganov school are not very large in front of them, and that detailed, accurate sheet, which the moderns called the “fragile sheet”. Basic styles of rice

Culture (in the translation of the Latin language - processing, processing) - all material and spiritual values, as a creation of the physical and rozum pracace of people (humanity). Phenomena of culture traced to natural phenomena. Under the material culture, sing to take away the equipment, work, cars, life, objects, etc. sukupnіst zabіv virobnіtstvа and tangible goods, created by human practice on the skin patches of suspіlnogo rostovka. Spiritual culture includes education, science, literature, folk art, and art.

Skhіdnoslovyanskі tribes even before the adoption of Christianity, the Mali culture was established. The material culture of the bula is related to the main occupations and included the processing of raw products, the technology of production and the conservation of natural products and fibers. Wood life (budinki, hillforts, cross those bridges over rivers) was supplemented by the preparation of faceless virobiv from wood. Usna folk creativity was tied to the pagan religion and the butt sphere.

Adoption of Christianity 988 р. enriched Russian culture.

In the XI-XII centuries. z'appeared: literary writings ("The Tale of Time Lit", Pskov, Іpatiїvska, Lavrentiїvska and іn litopisu); translation of books; original old-Russian literature, mostly life and stories (“Word about law and grace”, “Word about the death of Igor”, “Prayer of Danil the Zatochnik”, “Monomakh's speech to children” and іn.). There was a widening of writing (“Cyrillic”), which appeared in inscriptions on dishes, craftsmanships, on the walls of cathedrals (graphs), in birch bark letters. The first schools appeared at princely courts and monasteries. The children were also given a private, domestic rank. The important centers of culture and illumination were monasteries.

After 988 rubles kam'yane appeared, temple architecture is more important. The church of the Tithes in Kiev, St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kiev, Novgorod and Polotsk, Assumption and Dmitrovsky Cathedrals near Volodymyr, the Church of the Intercession-on-the-Nerl and others have been preserved to this day. During everyday life, the cross-dome construction, vvtar, apse and other new elements were made. Cathedrals were embellished with icons, frescoes, and mosaics. During the divine services, the church congregation appeared.

The creations of the art were created by the representatives of the deacons artisans - jewelers, brokers, potters and others. These products were exported in the order of farms, honey, and other goods.

Because of the praises of Christianity, my family became monogamous. Wealthy women and concubines were defended. The fathers' commitment to the care of children and the material well-being of the family grew, and the woman's dependence on the man grew stronger. During the formalization of the crypt of Russian legislation - Russian Pravda (the first half of the XI century) - not only normal law and princely decisions (precedents), but also Byzantine canon law and norms of international treaties were widely victorious. The Church has little special status and jurisdiction.

The Christianization of Russian culture, Russian witnessing was a trival hour. Deyaki pagan, pre-Christian zvicha, rites were preserved by the Donin (for example, spend the winter, caroling on Rizdvo thin.). Slovian paganism and Orthodoxy were oriented on the same moral criteria. Ale religious zmist transferred various spheres of activity. Christianity regulated the most important social blues, and paganism - mutually with nature.

Old Russia at the time of its expansion was the only old Russian power with the only old Russian mine, the single old Russian culture.

But the steps of cultural unity were insufficiently high. In the cultural-butovіy sphere of the various territories of the Great Northern European Region, they had their own peculiarities. In the period of feudal fragmentation, pet princes succumbed to the culture of the method of asserting their superiority and satisfaction with special ambitions. Mіstsevі litopisi depicted podії іz pozitsiy mіstsіy prince. Interested in the development of handicraft icon-painting, architectural, handicraft and other "schools", especially drawings.