For the liberal rule of the principle. Liberalism and neoliberalism: existence, stages of development, main representatives of those practices (general characteristic). Liberalism - what is it

in lativ. liberalis - vilniy) - the name of the "homeland" of ideological and political currents, which historically developed from rationalistic and educational criticism, which in 17-18 centuries. boulli poddanі zahіdnoevropeyske stavo-corporativno-corporativnoe suspіlstvo, political "absolutism" and the dictate of the church in secular life. Philosophical representations of the “members of the liberal family” were always different to the point of insanity. Historically, the most important among them are: 1) a statement about the “natural rights” of a person and a “suspended agreement” as the foundation of a legitimate political structure (J. Locke and others, The Sustained Agreement); 2) the "Kantian paradigm" of the moral autonomy of the noumental "I" and the concept of "legal power" that is exclaimed from it; 3) ideas of "Scottish enlightenment" (D. Hume, A. Smith, A. Ferguson, etc.) about the spontaneous evolution of social institutions, the poor, non-exhaustive squalor of resources among »; utilitarianism (I. Betpam, D. Ricardo, J. S. Mill et al.) with the yoga program “the greatest happiness for largest number people”, who are looked at as rosky maximizers of their wealth; 5) so how else to tie in with the Hegelian philosophy "historical liberalism" that strengthens the freedom of the people, but not like, the powerful one "of the people", but like, after the words of R. Collingwood, "nabota step by step the leaves, the stones of the people enter in self-confidence, one’s own individuality, looking ... moral progress.” In modified and often eclectic variants of various philosophical ideas, they are reflected in modern discussions of the middle of the “liberal family”. The main axes of such discussions, in which new groupings of liberal theories are being formed, which provide a different plan for the significance of the philosophic ideas, and so. First of all, why is liberalism guilty as its main method of pragging to “the subsistence of power, be it in order” (F. Hayek) such impossibility is the practical realization of a person’s own needs” (T. X. Grin). The essence of these discussions is the establishment of the state and the supremacy, the role, functions and permissible scale of activity of the first for the sake of ensuring the freedom of the development of an individual and a free group of people. In another way, how can liberalism be “value-neutral”, a kind of “pure” technique to defend individual freedom, regardless of the fact that it is expressed in some values ​​(J. Rawls, B. Ackerman), tolerance and solidarity, justice, etc.), such and such immeasurable moral relativism threatens it with the most pernicious, including without intermediary political, legacy (W. Galston, M. Walzer). The essence of this is the normative change to liberalism and the fallacy of the new practical functioning of liberal institutions. Thirdly, the super-cook of "economical" and "ethical" (or political) liberalism. The first one is characterized by the formula of L. von Mises: “To condense the whole program of liberalism in one word, then the power will be private to him ... Everything else, in addition to liberalism, squeals out of the center of fundamental power.” "Ethical" liberalism asserts that the link between freedom and private authority is ambiguous and not constant in different historical contexts. Behind the words of B. Krone, freedom “may have the courage to accept the benefits of social progress, like. .. rіznomanіtnym і super-chlivimy”, looking at the principle of laissez faire is no more like “one of the possible types of the economic order”.

As in different types of liberalism, classical and modern, it is impossible to know a common philosophical banner and approach them to the key practical problems to distinguish the floorings significantly, then how can one say about their belonging to one “motherland”? Prominent past successors show the possibility of giving liberalism a single purpose: this history only reveals a picture of “explorations, quirks, rіznomanіttya ... sympathetic, baiduzhe zmіshanih kupu pіd vіvіskayu “liberalizm” (Great liberalism). Spіlnіst raznyh vsіh іn. Vidnosynov Vidiv Liberalzmu vіdkriva, Yakshcho Rodiyatati is not the same fіlosofsky chi, a half-and-program serpent, ale yak ideologiy, and the vicinity of the people is not described by the people, but the dice of the same. In various historical situations, the success of the development of the functions of the scaling up to the various philosophical ideas and the development of various program settings for the same reason, "minimization" or the expansion of the state is too thin. In other words, the only thing that can be attributed to liberalism can only be attributed to the fact that it is the function of the creation of certain values-targets, which are manifested in a specific manner in a specific skin situation. Гідність і міра «досконалості» лібералізму визначаються не філософською глибиною його доктрин чи вірністю тим чи іншим «сакральним» формулюванням про «природність» прав людини чи «незламність» приватної власності, а його практичну (ідеологічну) здатність наблизити суспільство до своїх цілей і не дати Youmu “sirvatisya” in that camp, which is radically alien to him. Історія багаторазово демонструвала те, що філософсько бідні ліберальні навчання виявлялися з цієї точки зору набагато ефективніше за своїх філософсько витончених і витончених «побратимів» (порівняємо хоча б політичні «долі» поглядів «батьків-засновників» США, як вони викладені у «Федералісті» та in. documents, on one side, and German Kantianism - on the other). What are the strong values ​​of liberalism, how have they taken off in the history of different philosophical environments, and how have they been influenced by various practical programs?

1. Individualism - in the sense of "primacy" of the moral goodness of a person, in front of some kind of encroachment on the side of a new team, even though some kind of mirkuvannya dotsіlnostі so zazіhannya did not support. Crazy so. individualism does not include the a priori self-sacrifice of a human being, as if she knows that the collective is “fair”. Individualism is not connected with a logically necessary order and with these statements about the "atomization" of society, within the framework of such and on the basis of such wines, it has become firmly established in the history of liberalism.

2. Egalitarianism - in the sense of recognition for all people of equal moral value and the list of significance for the Organization of the most important legal and political institutions, the use of any "empirical" authorities among them (in the plan of march, power, profession, etc.). Such egalitarianism is not obov'yazkovo obґruntovuetsya zgіdno z formula "usі vіd narodzhennia rivni". For liberalism, it is important to introduce the problem of equivalence into the logic of duty ~ “we must be recognized as morally and politically equal”, regardless of the fact that we also introduce the doctrine of “natural rights”, the Hegelian dialectic of “slave and pan” and utilitarian .

3. Universalism - in the sense of knowing that, despite the fact that individu- al solidity and zeal (for a designated person) cannot be seen through the influence on the “immanent” peculiarities of other cultural and historical groups of people. Universalism is not guilty of obov'yazkovo po'yazuvatisya with statements about the posthistorical "nature of man" and the sameness of understanding of all "goodness" and "equanimity". Vіn can be interpreted in such a way that in skin culture - up to the authoritative nature of the development of a person - you can have the right to vimagati poshani goodness and equivalence, like the stench rises from its historical significance. The universal is not those who themselves wilt people in different contexts, but like stench wimagayut those who wilt, and themselves - not like a slave, like a joke of mercy, in a kakіy lord, by right, they can vodmoviti, but like people, yak mayut right those who stink vimagayut.

4. Meliorism, as an affirmation of the ability to correct and thoroughly improve any public institutions. Meliorism does not obov'yazkovo zbіgaєtsya with the idea of ​​progress as a direct and deterministic process, z kakou vіn buv dovgy іstorichesko po'yazaniya. Meliorism admits and differs in the manifestation of the spivvіdnoshennia svіdomogo and spontaneous soils in the change of society - in the range of spontaneous evolution Hayekado rationalistic constructivism of Bentham.

The concept of constellation of values-purposes is declared by liberalism to itself as a modern ideology, a rule of the early political age. The cordon here may be the meanings of the transformation of the central problem. All the current political thought was focused on nutrition: “What is the best power and what kind of people can be like?” The center of liberalism has more food: “how can a power, like the freedom of people, be built to wiggle and swaville in ruins, is it inexhaustible?” All liberalism, figuratively, apparently, screams from the two formulas of H. Hobbes: “I don’t have absolute goodness, let it be any kind of improvement to something, or to someone else” (that’s why I don’t feel sense) and “the nature of goodness And it’s evil to lie in the presence of the totality of minds, which is at the given moment ”(so the “correct” and “good” policy can only be considered as a function of the situation). The change of these central powerhouses and marked the deep outline of the liberal political idea, christened with such lines-positions: їх adjuncts for political participation (like tse bulo, for example, Aristotle). This is the liberal principle of equivalence, which reminded me of zmist in the course of the history of liberalism, progressively expanding to new groups of people, excluded from politics at the previous stages. It was clear that such a broader effort was made to help the democratic struggle against the institutional forms of liberalism, which were formed earlier, with the powerful mechanisms of discrimination, and not the self-suffocation of "immanent principles" to liberalism. But more importantly, the liberal power that ideology was built up to such a development, just as before political forms(The very same antique polis) was lamed during tests of the expansion of their cob principles and the expansion of them into a group of rotten ones; 2) since there is no absolute good, self-evident for all participants in politics, then reaching the light of transferring the freedom of all access to the authorities' statements about the good. All allowances are “technically” implemented at the sight of the installation of channels (procedural and institutional), which seem to be satisfied with the people of their work. Back of the hand freedom to come at modern light above the sight of a “good gift”, and the sight of a terrible call to the very foundations of a bunch of people from the side of their violent selfishness. Liberalism could recognize rough and unsafe freedom and socialize її zgіdno with that primitive formula “freedom of the air”, as it so vividly conveys early liberalism. Such recognition and those that squealed from the new for political theory and practice, necessary for the realization of self-empowerment sleepy life people for the minds of the present. (At the sensible Hegelian formula - “freedom is necessary”, because freedom has become a necessity for the present, which, obviously, may have little to do with the “dialectical-materialistic” clouding of the formula of F. Engels - freedom is recognized as a necessity). But the need to recognize freedom in its rough form is not enough to talk about those who did not find liberalism in the meaningful practice of freedom. As if ethically, liberalism has broken, even to the point where freedom itself has become a self-endangerment for people. The formula of this new understanding of freedom as “freedom for” can be taken into account the words of A. de Tocqueville: “The one who searches for freedom else, krim її samoї, creations for slavery”; 3) as freedom is known (in the first place, and in another її rozumіnі), then the only way to rule the state is the benefit of the organizers and participants. The sense of that strategic method of liberal politics is reaching consensus as the only real foundation of a modern power. Rukh at the Tsomoma Svetmi - zyma yogo, grip, vicoristani izhrmenting manipulas, so the very yaks of the moments of the creativity of the novelty of the people veneratino є rye likyno, yy,

Leonpjuvich V. V. History of liberalism in Russia. 1762-1914. Moscow, 1995; DunnJ. Liberalism.- Idem., Western Political Theory in Face f the Future. Cambr.. 1993; Galston W.A. Liberalism and Public Morality.- Liberals on Liberalism, ed. by A. Damico. Totowa (NJ), 1986; Grey). liberalism. Milton Keynes, 1986; Hayek F.A. Constitution f Liberty. L., 1990; Holmes S. The Permanent Structure of Antiliberal Thought.- Liberalism and the Moral Life, ed. by N. Rosenblum, Cambr. (Mass), 1991; Mills W. C. Liberal Values ​​in the Modem Vbrld.-Idem. Power, Politics and People, ed. by I. Horowitz. N.Y., 1963; RawlsJ. political liberalism. N. Y, 1993; Ruggiero G. de. The History of Liberalism. L., 1927; Wallerstein 1. After Liberalism. N. Y., 1995, pans 2, 3.

Vіdmіnne vyznachennya

Not exactly appointed ↓

What is liberalism? The skin of a person is nourished in his own way. Navit in dictionaries are given different meanings of understanding. Tsya statya rozpovida, what is liberalism, in simple words.

Appointment

You can see some of the most accurate definitions of the concept of "liberalism".

1. Ideology, political currents. There will be shanuvalniki in parliamentarism, democratic rights and free admission.

2. Theory, system of political and philosophical ideas. Vaughn was formed in the middle of Western European thinkers in the XVIII-XIX centuries.

3. Svіtoglyad, powerful ideologists in the warehouse of the industrial bourgeoisie, yakі stood for freedom of business and political rights.

4. The primary meaning is free-thinking.

5. Overworldly tolerance, condescension, conciliatory attitude to filthy vchinkiv.

Speaking about those that liberalism is, in simple words, it should be noted that this ideological trend is political, representatives of which will list the revolutionary methods of fighting for the attained rights of that right, stand for the freedom of acceptance, introducing the principle of democratic life.

The main ambush of liberalism

Ideology of liberalism from other theories of political and philosophical thought is inspired by special principles. The stench was formulated in the context of the XVIII-XIX centuries, and the representatives of the current flow to practice in their life dosi.

1. Human life is an absolute value.
2. All people are equal among themselves.
3. The will of special officers to lie in the hands of senior officials.
4. Consume one important person for the collective. The category "specialty" is primary, "suspіlstvo" is secondary.
5. A person's skin has natural non-human rights.
6. The State can be blamed on the basis of a global consensus.
7. The person herself creates laws and values.
8. Gromadyanin that power bear vіdpovіdalnіst one before one.
9. Podіl vlady. Panuvannya principles of constitutionalism.
10. The ranks are guilty of taking the path of honest democratic elections.
11. Tolerance and humanism.

Ideologists of classical liberalism

Kozhen is an ideologist of the flow of minds, which is liberalism in its own way. This theory is represented by impersonal concepts and ideas, which can be superchit by one alone. The coils of classical liberalism can be found in the works of S. Montesqui, A. Smith, J. Locke, J. Mill, T. Hobbes. The stench itself laid the foundations for a new flow. The main principles of liberalism were expanded in the era of Enlightenment in France by Ch. Montesque. Vіn stubbornly spoke about the need for subdivision of power and the recognition of freedom of specialty in all spheres of life.

Adam Smith, arguing that this is economic liberalism, and having seen the main ambush and ostentation. J. Locke is the founder of the theory of legal power. In addition, wine is one of the most important ideologies of liberalism. J. Locke affirmed that the stability of a society can only be achieved in the same way that it is made up of free people.

Peculiarities of liberalism in the classical mind

The ideologists of classical liberalism gave the main respect to the concept of “individual freedom”. On the basis of absolutist ideas, their concepts were changed outside the order of the individual to the supremacy and social orders. The ideology of liberalism was supported by the independence and equivalence of all people. Freedom was taken as the reality of whether there were any obmezhen chi fences, the implementation of the implementation of the special arrangements within the framework of the globally adopted rules and laws. The power, in the opinion of the fathers of classical liberalism, can secure the jealousy of all the citizens. Prote people can independently turbulent about their material camp.

Liberalism voted for the need to improve the sphere of activity of the state. Yogo funktsії owe to buti zvedenі to a minimum and polagat in the order of protection and security. The power of that suspіlstvo can be used only for the mind and subordination to the laws.

Models of classical liberalism

J. Locke, J.-J. Russo, J. St. Mill, T. Payne. They stood up for the ideas of individualism and freedom of the people. In order to understand what liberalism is like in a classical mind, one should look at its interpretation.

1. Continental-European model. Representatives of this concept (F. Guizot, B. Constant, J.-J. Rousseau, B. Spinoza) stood for the ideas of constructivism, rationalism, and mutuality with nationalism, gave more importance to freedom in the middle of society, but not to others.
2. Anglo-Saxon model. Representatives of this concept (J. Locke, A. Smith, D. Hume) stuck to the idea of ​​a legal power, free trade, were reconsidered in the fact that freedom is more important for the okreme individual, lower for the welfare as a whole.
3. Pivnichnoamericana model. Representatives of this concept (J. Adams, T. Jefferson) developed the ideas of non-infringement of human rights.

Economic liberalism

At the heart of this direct liberalism was the statement about those who economical laws act as if they were natural. The sovereignty vtruchannya in qiu region was considered unacceptable.

The father of the concept of economic liberalism is respected by A. Smith. Yogo vchennya was based on upcoming ideas.

1. The best incentive for economic development is special interest.
2. Sovereigns come and go to regulate that monopoly, which was practiced within the framework of mercantilism, shkidli.
3. The development of the economy is direct by an “invisible hand”. Necessary institutions can blame the natural order without the intervention of the state. Firms and post-workers of resources, like zatsіkavlenі in the growth of power wealth and develop within the framework of a competitive market system, nibito use an “invisible hand” to meet the satisfaction of the consumer needs.

Vindication of neoliberalism

Considering what liberalism is, it is necessary to give two concepts - classic and modern (new).

At the beginning of the 20th century in whom directly political and economic thoughts begin to appear crisis manifestations. In rich Western European powers, there are strikes of workers, industrial support to enter a lot of conflicts. At times, the classical theory of liberalism ceases to stray from reality. New ideas and principles are being formed. The central problem of contemporary liberalism is the nourishment of social guarantees of the rights and freedom of the individual. The popularity of Marxism has taken this significant world. From the other side, the need for social entry was seen even in the works of I. Kant, J. St. Mill, G. Spencer.

Principles of contemporary (new) liberalism

For the new liberalism, the authoritative orientation is towards rationalism and goal-directed reforms with a method of improving the essential state and political systems. The problem of setting freedom, justice and equality occupies a special place. Understanding the meaning of "elita". It is formed from the largest possible members of the group. It is important that the success can reach the triumph of the elite only, and die at once from it.

The economic ambush of liberalism is defined as the concept of “free market” and “minimum power”. The problem of freedom is becoming intellectually confusing and is being translated into the realm of morality and culture.

Features of neoliberalism

As a social philosophy and a political concept, modern liberalism has its own peculiarities.

1. The sovereignty is indispensable for the economy. The order is guilty of protecting the freedom of competition and the market because of the possibility of blaming monopoly.
2. Support for the principles of democracy, justice. Broad masses are guilty of taking an active part in the political process.
3. The State can develop and implement programs that are designed to support low-income populations.

Vіdminnosti klіberalіzmu klіberalіzmu

History of the development of Russian liberalism

In Russia already in the XVI century. those who are such liberalism are born. In yoga, the development can be called a sprat of stages.

1. Ordinary liberalism. Vinik at the highest stakes of the Russian society. The period of rank-and-file liberalism develops with the hour of the reign of Catherine II and Oleksandr I. In fact, this foundation is the development of the epoch of illuminated absolutism.
2. Post-reformation (conservative) liberalism. The most famous representatives of this era were P. Struve, K. Kavelin, B. Chicherin and others. At this hour, Zemsky liberalism is being formed in Russia.
3. New (social) liberalism. Representatives of this directly (N. Karєєv, S. Hessen, M. Kovalevsky, S. Muromtsev, P. Miliukov) supported the idea of ​​creating a skin-like people of good minds of life. At what stage were formed rethinks and enlightened the party of the Cadets.

Liberal ones directly looked like they were among themselves, and they were richly different from Western European concepts.

Ordinary liberalism

Earlier, we looked at what liberalism is (designated from the history and political science, signs, features). However, in Russia, authentic direct flows were formed. Let's use the butt of the order of liberalism. Vіn reached the peak of his development under the hour of the rule of Alexander I. At this hour, liberal ideas are expanding among the noble middle class. The reign of the new emperor began with low progressive changes. It was allowed to cross the cordon freely, to import foreign books too. Following the initiative of Alexander I, an Unspoken Committee was created, which was engaged in the development of projects for new reforms. Nearby emperors moved up to this warehouse. The plans of the children of the unspoken committee were to reform the state system, create a constitution and create a voice of corruption. However, under the influx of reactionary forces, Oleksandr I had no more hope for private reworking.

Vindication of conservative liberalism in Russia

Conservative liberalism will be expanded in England and France. In Russia, tsey directly nabula osoblivih rice. Conservative liberalism took its first cob at the moment of Alexander II's death. The reforms, as if the emperor had been expanded, were less frequently implemented, and the country, like before, demanded a reorganization. The accusation of the new is directly related to the fact that the greater stakes of the Russian society began to understand what liberalism and conservatism are, and tried to escape extremes.

Ideologists of conservative liberalism

In order to understand what post-reform liberalism is like in Russia, it is necessary to look at the concepts of yoga ideologies.

K. Kavelin is the founder of the conceptual approach to that direct political thought. Yogo student, B. Chicherin, having developed the foundations of the theory of conservative liberalism. Vіn vyznav tsey bluntly as "positive", a method of є zdіysnennya necessary for the reforms. With all the changes, the population is guilty not only of their own ideas, but also of calling on the interests of others. According to B. Chicherin, suspenstvo can be strong, but less stable in that moment, as if it spires to power. With whom a person can be free, to that there is an ear and a core of good social benefits.

The development of the philosophical, cultural and methodological foundations of which was directly taken up by P. Struve. Vіn vvazhav, scho more rational conservatism and liberalism can vryatuvat Russia in the post-reform period.

Features of post-reform liberalism

1. Understanding the need for state regulation. At the same time, buti can clearly see the directions of yoga activity.
2. The state is recognized as the guarantor of the stability of foreign exchange between different groups in the country.
3. Awareness of the fact that in the period of increasing failures of the reformers, we can come to the rule of authoritarian leaders.
4. The transformation of the economy can be more incremental. The ideologists of post-reform liberalism insisted that it is necessary to look after the reaction of the state to skin reform and carry it out with care.
5. Choice of setting to the zahodny suspіlstva. It is necessary to victorious and apprehend only those who meet the needs of the state.

The ideologists of which directly political thoughts jumped to inculcate their ideas through the atrocities to mass values, which were formed during the process of the historical process of supremacy. Same in tsimu polagaє meta i characteristic of rice conservative liberalism.

Zemsky liberalism

Speaking of post-reform Russia, one cannot but guess about those who are such zemstvo liberalism. Tsey directly blames for example the XIX - on the cob of the XX century. At the same time, Russia was undergoing modernization, which led to an increase in the number of intelligentsia, and an oppositional movement was formed among the stakes. Near Moscow, a secret group "Besida" was created. The same robot was conceived by the formation of the ideas of the liberal opposition. Members of this group were zemsky deacons F. Golovin, D. Shipov, D. Shakhovsky. The mouthpiece of the liberal opposition became the magazine "Zvilnennya", which was seen beyond the cordon. On the other side, it was said about the need to knock down autocratic power. In addition, the liberal opposition stood for expanding the rights and powers of the zemstvos, as well as for their active participation in the state government.

New liberalism in Russia

Liberal streak at the political Duma of Russia is brewing new rice until the beginning of the 20th century. It is directly formed for the minds of sharp criticism of the concept of "legal power". For this very reason, the liberals set themselves the task of obscuring the progressive role of the rank-and-file institutions in the household.
It is important that in the XX century. Russia to enter the smug of the social crisis. The reason for the new liberals was a great economic inadequacy and a spiritual and moral catastrophe. The stench was respected that the person is guilty of the mother not only for the cause, but also for the sake of it, as if she won victorious for her thoroughness.

Radical liberalism

Speaking about those that are liberalism, one should name the basis for this radical directive. In Russia, having taken shape on the cob of the twentieth century. The main method of this revolution was the collapse of the autocracy. We use the bula of the Constitutional Democratic Party (cadets) as an example of the activity of the radical liberals. Looking straight ahead, you can see the same principles.

1. Application of the role of the state. Nadії trust spontaneous processes.
2. Achievement of goals set in different ways. Chi not zaperechuєtsya mozhlivіst vikoristannya primusіv primus.
3. In the middle of the economy, it is possible to have less speed and deep macro-reforms yakі ohoplyuyut as much as possible kіlkіst aspects.
4. One of the main values ​​of radical liberalism is to understand the light culture and the development of the European powers with the problems of Russia.

Modern Russian liberalism

What is the current liberalism in Russia? Tse pitanya dosі zalishaєtsya debatable. The successors have different versions about the origin of this directly, about this principle and specialness in Russia.
Vcheni see the figures of contemporary liberalism in Russia. Let's take a look at their report.

1. Mirkuvannya pro political device often walk between liberalism.
2. Obstructing the need for the foundation of the market economy.
3. Concerned about the protection of the rights of private power.
4. Blame the nourishment of "Russian identity".
5. In the sphere of religion, the majority of liberals advocate tolerance towards other confessions.

Visnovki

Today, the liberal direct political thoughts have an impersonal flow. Leather from them virobiv its principles and especially rice. In the rest of the hour, super-eyes are roaming around the worldly masses, which is the birthplace of liberalism, which sparked wines. It should be noted that the French educators affirmed that freedom is the right, but the understanding of the need is not accessible to the skin.

And in a flash we can say that liberal ideas are transformed by the invisible rice of modern life.

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics

Department of Humanitarian Disciplines

from the discipline: "Fundamentals of the ideology of the Belarusian state".

On the topic: Basic principles of liberalism. Social liberalism”.

Vikonala: Revisited:

Student gr. 863001 Rudakovsky N.K.

Zhitkevich Inna

liberalism

Historically, the first formulated political ideology was the ideology of liberalism, which was the vinyl of the 18th century. Until this hour, in European places, I suspected the class of great lords, as they did not belong to the nobility and the clergy, so the titles of the third camp or the bourgeoisie. This was an active part of the suspense, as it was not satisfied with the good material life of the camp, and was pursuing its own path to the political influx.

The founders of the theoretical obstruction of liberalism are respected by the British. English John Locke(1632-1704), having first hung the idea of ​​power under it, interpreting the role of the state as a contractual obligation to protect the natural and non-human rights to life, freedom and power. Scot Adam Smith(1723-1790), "father of economics", showing, zocrema, that the exchange of goods is more or less the same, if it is viable for both sides. "In order to elevate the state from the lowest stage of barbarism to the highest stage, I will need only peace, easy gifts and tolerance in administration; all else to work out the natural style of speeches. If you want to get rid of the power, the stench of madness will strangle that tyranny."

The basic value of liberalism, as it screams already, is the name of the ideology of ideology, freedom individuals. Spiritual freedom is the right to choose from religious food, freedom of speech. Material freedom is the right to power, the right to buy and sell with the blessing of the grapes. Political freedom - freedom for the literal meaning of the word for the pretrial laws, freedom for the political will. The rights and freedom of specialty may take precedence over the interests of the state's sovereignty.

The ideal of liberalism is the supremacy with freedom for the skin, the free exchange of politically significant information, the exchange of power over the power of the church, the rule of law, private power and the freedom of private enterprise. Liberalism saw a rich position, which was the basis of the previous theories of power, such as the divine right of monarchs to rule and the role of religion as a single dzherel of knowledge. The fundamental principles of liberalism include:

given in the nature of natural rights (including the right to life, special freedom and power), as well as other civil rights;

equality and equality before the law;

market economy;

vіdpovіdalnosti rank and prozorostі sovereignty.

The function of state power in one's own is reduced to a minimum, which will be the necessary security of these principles. Today's liberalism also allows the outright supremacy, founded on pluralism and democratic government, to kill the defender of the rights of the minority and the large population.

Today, the currents of liberalism are more tolerant of state regulation of free markets for ensuring equal opportunities to achieve success, globally investigating that change in the difference in incomes of the population. Adherents of such glances are aware that the political system can take revenge on the elements of the social power, including the sovereign help with unemployment, shelters for the homeless and costless health care.

From the looks of the liberals, the sovereign power is based for the benefit of the people of their own, and the country’s political power can be built on the basis of the good of the greater power. On this day, the political system, which is the most consonant with the reforms of liberals, is liberal democracy.

On the back of liberalism came from the fact that all rights can be in the hands of the physical and legal issues and the state is guilty of exclu- sively for the protection of these rights. Contemporary liberalism has significantly expanded the framework of the classical interpretation and includes silent flows, between which there are deep lapses and conflicts for an hour. Modern liberalism in most of the developed lands is the sum of all these forms. In the lands of the third world, “third-generation liberalism” often comes to the fore - a move for the health of dovkil and against.

Liberalism is considered low peculiarities at the borders of various national traditions. Okremi aspects of yoga theory (economical, political, ethical) can be compared to one to the other. In this order, є zmіst zmіst vysnovka T. Spragens: "Liberalism, as if there was not a single thing, bula was only sim'ya liberalizmіv". Obviously, we can rightly with impersonal theories, united by some kind of supreme principles, in a way, liberalism is inspired by other ideologies. Moreover, these principles allow different interpretations, can be combined even with a chimerical rank, which is substantiated for the most ignorant, for an hour, one single argument.

In my opinion, before these principles lie, first, individualism, the priority of the interests of individuals over the interests of the support of the group. This principle takes into account the difference in grounding: in the form of ontological concepts, in some cases, people with її natural rights are transferred to the existence, to the ethical understanding of individuality as value. Він втілювався в різних інтерпретаціях взаємовідносин особистості та суспільства: від уявлення про суспільство як про механічну суму індивідів, що реалізують власні інтереси, до комплекснішого підходу, в рамках якого людина розглядається як істота соціальна, яка потребує одночасно і співпраці з іншими людьми, і в автономії . However, the idea of ​​the rights of an individual, for example, to exaggerate the main vimogi to a suspenseful arrangement, is without a doubt the basis of all liberal theories, invigorating the future of non-liberal approaches.

In another way, liberalism is characterized by the idea of ​​human rights and the value of freedom of specialty. Although the author is right, as the interpretation of freedom in the course of the old history of liberal ideas, they recognized the fundamental changes, the priority of freedom, as the main value for liberals, was left unchanged. The adherents of “classical” liberalism interpret freedom negatively, as if it were a daily primus and succumb to the natural exchange of the equal rights of other people. The equivalence of formal rights stinks is considered as the only kind of equivalence, summed up with freedom as a priority value. The rights of individuals are reduced by them to a sum of "fundamental rights", to which include political freedom, freedom of thought and freedom of conscience, as well as the rights that stand for the independence of the individual, backed by guarantees of private power. The “new liberals” proclaim a positively sensible freedom, which will add to the freedom of equal opportunities as a guarantee of the creation of rights. Freedom in the mind of the mind is the real possibility of choice, which is not recognized by other people, nor by the circumstances of the life of the individual himself. At the link with the "new liberals", the framework of "fundamental rights" is drawn up, including the most important social rights.

Otherwise, as the main force for liberalism, it is a statement about those who have a skin people have their own statement about life, and they can have the right to realize their well-being in the world, so the supremacy can show tolerance until the last thought, other people. During its long history, liberalism has vitiated the system of institutional guarantees of the rights of individuals, to the extent that the lack of private authority and the principle of religious tolerance, the encroachment of the state into the sphere of private life, the rule of law, the constitution, the right representative, are included.

Thirdly, an important principle characteristic of the liberal approach is rationalism, belief in the possibility of step-by-step goal-directed full-fledged success with reformist, but not revolutionary approaches. The liberal doctrine presents a great deal of power to the nature of the transformation that is to be carried out. Behind the words of V.Leontovich, “the method of liberalism is a transitional code for special freedom. Such a usunennya cannot, however, succumb to the form of a violent coup chi ruin... It is necessary to the liberal spy, it is necessary to put us in front of the immensity of the new sovereign power ... Now, liberalism is put with the greatest honor to the sub'reactive people ... Powers of foreign countries forcibly inflicted on the essential life of mutual people, such as the destruction of primary life forms...”. Tsya characteristic dosit povno vіdbivaє principle, like from liberal theory. Although practical, the liberals were repeatedly trapped in their steps, the fragments of social transformation - tse “destruction of the primary life forms”, the proteomerative of liberal reforms is the principle of minimal damage to the manifest individual rights.

Zim pov'yazana and іnsha rice of liberal methods - їх "anti-constructivism": liberals call for "social engineering" more than the world, which won't usuvaє the membranes of the development of institutions and vіdnosin that have been formed. By this method, there are no specific projects of “good welfare” and carrying out some rather well-constructed models.

These are, in our opinion, the main principles of liberalism. Vtim, this translation can be continued. However, even if we report on it, we can always refer to some liberal concepts, which do not fit into the new one. As E. Shatsky writes, “so we wouldn’t stverdzhuvayut about look, nothing characteristic of liberalism, trace the memory, that by stretching its long history, serving various purposes and interests, adhering to the various theorists of the Muscovite traditionalists. For the reasons of the skin described, that the transfer of the high ribbing of the zagalnenny, will inevitably be wrong. They themselves can say about all the “changes” behind a wink, as if they created dogmatic systems ... ”. To that there is no trace of bachiti in the proponated greater description of the description as a suvore of appointment. Liberalism is not a system, which is built up from time to time and after a given set of elements, but rather as an area of ​​ideas, which allows different combinations, prote may be with the same number of elements between.

Social liberalism

Social liberalism is the culprit, for example, of the XIX century, in the wealthy and distant lands, under the influence of utilitarianism. Deyakі liberals adopted, often more often, Marxism and the socialist theory of exploitation and deyshli vysnovka, that the state can win its power for the promotion of social justice. Thinkers like John Dew and Mortimer Adler explained that all Individuals, being the basis of welfare, for the realization of their needs, it is their mother's responsibility to access basic needs, such as lighting, economic feasibility, and protection from the deadly large-scale poses of their control. Such positive rights, as if they are reliant on suspility, are similarly reborn in the face of classical negative rights, ensuring that they help in the face of other failures. The adherents of social liberalism insist that without a guarantee of positive rights, the fair implementation of negative rights is impossible, the shards of practically low-income people sacrifice their rights for the sake of survival, and judges often shirk at the greed of the rich. Social liberalism promotes the promotion of such exchanges for economic competition. Vіn also ochіkuє in the order of the social protection of the populace (for rahunok podtkіv), to create a mind for the development of all talented people, to intimidate social riots and simply "for the sacramental good."

Between economics and social liberalism, there is fundamental super-security. Economic liberals are aware that positive rights will inevitably destroy negative ones and are unacceptable for that. The stink to perform the function of the state, surrounded by the head rank, nourishing the security of legality, the security of that defense. In my opinion, these functions and so the presence of a strong centralized state power. Навпаки, соціальні ліберали вважають, що головне завдання держави полягає у соціальному захисті та забезпеченні соціальної стабільності: наданні харчування та житла нужденним, охороні здоров'я, шкільній освіті, пенсійному забезпеченні, догляді за дітьми, інвалідами та старими, допомоги жертвам стихійних лих, захисті a minority of wickedness, support of science and mysticism. Such a pidkhid makes it difficult to carry out large-scale delimitations on the order. Regardless of the unity of the final goal - special freedom - economic and social liberalism drastically diverge from the means for reaching it. Rights and conservative movements often schilyayutsya at the vindictiveness of economic liberalism, speaking out against cultural liberalism. Lively revolutions, as a rule, slander cultural and social liberalism.

Deyakі doslidniki kazayut, scho stavlennja "positive" and "negative" rights on the right є we will reveal, shards for the security of "negative" rights on the right also need suspіlnі vitrati (for example, utrimannya judges for the protection of power).

From current political ideologies liberalє one of the oldest. The term "liberalism" will be brought to fruition until the 40s. XIX century, but as a stretch of the political philosophy of wines, having adopted already from the XVII century. The emergence of a liberal ideology was driven by the modernization of Western European society and the need to fight against the economic and political structures of feudalism. The most prominent ideologists of classical liberalism were J. Locke and D. Hume in England, C. Montesque, Voltaire and D. Diderot in France, I. Kant at Nimechchina. The origin of the liberal tradition across the ocean is associated with the names of "fathers-founders" of the States of America Jefferson, Hamilton, Franklin.

Representatives of the classical liberal doctrine hung low on ideas, as in all stages of development they were left with the original ones. Nasampered, the idea is about the absolute value of human specialty and the equanimity of people of the nationality that the stars are screaming. Within the framework of the liberal doctrine, the food about the inviolability of human rights - the right to life, freedom, power - was put first. The state has come to mind as a legacy of a huge agreement, the main method of which is the defense of these rights. On this basis, the concept of a legal power is based on the visunuta vysunuta obezhennya obsyagu and spheres of activity of the power, the hive of the bulk of the people in the supremacy of sovereign control. Liberalism came out of the need for power under the rule, so that the skin from її hilok would not be small enough to win over the others and would be a streaming intermediate for them.

Some of the political ideas of classical liberalism declaring the most important principles in the sphere of the economy. The economic doctrine of liberalism was also grounded on the speed of the sovereign's imposition of that regulation. Really meant the recognition of a new freedom of private initiative and private entrepreneurship. On the thought of one of the leading ideologists of economic liberalism, A. Smith, it is possible for me to bring prosperity to such a state, if I am satisfied with the interests of all social beliefs. Significantly, the trend towards political and economic liberalism has not been spared.

Historical evidence showing that the two main values ​​of classical liberalism - freedom and equality - superequal one to one. Tsim protirichchiam bulo zumovleno yogo farther podіl. Leve directly liberalism was oriented towards the elements of egalitarianism, the power of early liberalism, and knew its own other options social liberalism, orientation of social and economic reforms. The meta of such reforms is to zapobіgannya hospitable social and political conflicts, building zruynuvat іsnuyuche suspіlstvo and create a threat to the basic rights and freedoms of the people. The other way around the greater world, inspired by the ideas of economic liberalism, is the priority of private power and private entrepreneurship.

After another world war, the real political influx of liberals in all the different lands fell. It was because of the fact that the political ideas of liberalism were practically realized in the most civilized lands, and also because of the social democrats in the political life of the liberals. However political parties that organization of a liberal orientation and today's influx of force in some countries. Z 1947 іsnuє Liberal International, the headquarters of which is located in London. In the program documents of the Liberal International, adopted in 1947, 1967 and 1981, the main ambush of the political ideology of liberalism is fixed for hundred and fifty modern minds. Liberals vvazhayut that political freedom can not be there, de power to control the economy, without depriving space for private initiative. But economic freedom is impossible, even though daily freedom is political and people's rights are not respected. Liberals stand up for the social market economy, so that they can improve economic efficiency and socially oriented policy. Great respect is attached to the taxable policy. Donations, in the opinion of the liberals, may make you want to take advantage of the diyalnist and secure the equanimity of opportunities. Today's liberal doctrine declares the need for the security of new employment, the adoption of life. But the liberals categorically oppose egalitarianism, they stink about equivalence as equal to all the possibilities of self-development and in order to work the maximum contribution to the development of prosperity. The principle of human dignity and sim's for liberals is the basis of suspense. The stench vvazhayut that the state is not guilty of taking on itself the povenovazhennya, scho to superimpose the basic rights of the hromadians. Kozhen the bulky man is guilty of the mother for the moral responsibility of hundreds of other members of the society and to take the fate of the bulky rights.

Сьогодні завдання реформування суспільства ліберали вбачають у зміцненні реальної влади парламентів, підвищенні ефективності виконавчої влади та парламентського контролю над нею, децентралізації влади, юридичному захисті прав особистості та людської гідності, ретельному врівноваженні втручання та невтручання держави для того, щоб примирити інтереси людини з інтересами суспільства. In the international aspect, the liberals declare their respect for the principles of conservation and protection of the world and security, rozzbroennya, rozblokuvannya regional and international conflicts, the development of vydnosin mizh krajnami.

Liberalism as a political ideology in the XX century. having plunged into other ideological currents. The social-democratic ideology took away from itself a lot of principles of social liberalism. The conservative ideology of the greater world has taken over the ideas of economic liberalism. Liberalism in the mind of a pure yogi may today be surrounded by waters at the edge of Zakhod. The parties, which maintain their loyalty to the basic principles of liberal ideology and therefore are unique in populist political technologies, do not swear by the broad zeal of the electorate. Adherents of liberal ideas are most importantly people with a high level of enlightenment, which lie up to the highest levels of the middle class or to the elitist kіl. The population is wildly spurred by the support of the center-left parties, they are supported by either conservative, social-democratic values.

In Russia, liberal ideas began to penetrate practically from the moment of their vindication in Western Europe, and they gave a big boost to reform programs, as they tried to implement them in Russia at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. (Div. section XV). Until the end of the 19th century, in the world, like the tsarist order, showing its lack of maturity before a deep reform of the Russian society and the resolution of its urgent problems, liberalism became the ideological platform of a part of the oppositional intellectuals. On the vіdmіnu vіd sоtsіalіstіv — prikhlіnіnііn іn drіkіnії revіlіynіh revival, liberals advocated the reformation of suspіlіnі vіdnosin within іsnuyuchoї politicії sistemy, and її її її її modernizatsіyu. The ideal rich Russian liberals on the cob of the XX century. bula constitutional monarchy behind the English spirit, although the wings of Russian liberalism did not include the possibility of a transition to a republican form of government. During the entire period, the Russian liberal thought was represented by the names of political leaders and scholars, who made their contributions to distant development liberal concepts.

The original idea of ​​how the main antinomy of the liberal doctrine - jealousy and freedom - was developed by a prominent Russian lawyer, sociologist, historian M. M. Kovalevsky. Vіn bringing the possibility of a parallel development of jealousy and freedom. Spiryuchis on concrete application of the development of law and politics, Kovalevsky arguing that it is possible to overcome the gap between freedom and equality in order to introduce a substitute for the understanding of justice and solidarity. The concept of solidarity supported the basic principles of social liberalism, but the idea of ​​defending the specialty and її rights of the order from the affirmation of the collective foundations of the buttya of humanity. M. M. Kovalevsky, having taken into account that solidarity does not vimage in the form of people, but in the form of freedom of self-determination, and zhaschav in the form of subjective rights. The freedom of self-appointment of one individual is not guilty of respecting the freedom of self-appointment of others, to which the skin subject of law is bound by the understanding of obov'yazkiv.

Russian liberalism on the cob XX century. without compromising the future nor for the theoretical equivalence of comprehending various problems, nor any specific programs of their solution. However, in Russia, the liberals had a small social base, the fragments of the process of modernizing the Russian society were far from complete. Even though the theoreticians of Russian liberalism were established, if they hadn’t been grounded in their concepts and programs, all the same it didn’t allow to repair the gap between the liberals and the Russian people. For this reason, not liberalism, but socialism emerged as a dominant political ideology, which indicated the activity of the most active opponents of the Russian autocracy.

The rebirth of the liberal political ideology in Russia was seen in the minds of the transformation of the radian political and economic system. On the cob of the 90s. XX century a group of young economists acted as reformers - adherents of neoliberal economic concepts. The peculiarity of their activity was due to the fact that the stench practically did not protect the specifics of politics and political vodnosin. The very term "liberalism" began to gloom more like an economic, lower political category. Moreover, liberalism was opposed to the economic principles of neoliberalism; Tsіkavy fact: Є. Gaidar, who had chosen the Democratic Choice of Russia (DRV) party, announcing that the party would join the International Democratic Union (IDS). At the same time, the IBC united in its lava parties of a conservative orientation, just like the Democratic Choice of Russia, being respected by a leading party of liberal directives.

Until then, those who have positioned themselves in Russia on the cob of the 90s. XX century like liberals, nastyly sorted out from Russian specifics. They approached both domestic and international politics to feed on schematism and utopism. The negative social consequences of the reforms that were carried out under the liberal concerts have discredited the understanding of “liberalism” among the broad versts of the Russian population. In order to revive the ideas of liberalism and political forces, in order to focus on the idea, it is necessary to critically rethink the recent achievements of the 1990s. XX century Here we should not oppose the economic doctrine of liberalism, but defend all the different liberal concepts in the lands of Zakhod, not forgetting to turn to the pre-revolutionary recession of the liberal vіtchiznânoї thought.

1.2 The main representatives of liberalism and their theories

One of the representatives of the quiet, who stood for the revolutions of liberalism, is John Locke. John Locke (1632-1704) is an English philosopher (the founder of empiricism in the theory of knowledge) and a political thinker. Born with this notary. Graduated from college at Oxford University. At this university we later wrote Greek language and moral philosophy. At the same time, having continued to study the natural sciences, especially medicine.

In 1667 p. Locke, having become the house doctor and trusted person of Lord A. Ashley (Earl of Shaftesbury), the future leader of the party of the Whig, acted against the expansion of the royal prerogatives. Locke leaned against the center of great politics. Vіn having taken the fate of the recent apprehension against King Charles II and emigrated to the Netherlands, having come to the court of William of Orange. In 1689, when the Prince of Orange ascended the English throne, Locke turned to the emigration and published two works at once, as if they brought yoma wide popularity: "Documents about people's understanding" (1690) and "Two treatises about government" (1690).

"Two treatises about the rule" - work in the gallery of political philosophy. Locke laid the foundations for the European concept of liberalism, which is based on the recognition of the unknown and inviolable rights of individuals and rose to power, opposing all concepts to absolutism. Locke also stood for the rounds of ideological grounding of the regime of legality.

Tsya pratsya, yaka vplinala on the rich political thinkers and on the constitutional development of the low country, was published anonymously, and Locke - with care - without ignoring his authorship. The first treatise of which creation was dedicated to the actual criticism of the theory of the divine right of sovereigns of power at that time. In another treatise, Locke obgruntovuvav theory of natural law, suspіlnogo contract that podіlu vlady.

For Locke, until the state is vinicted, people perebuvayut at the natural camp. There is no "fight against all against all" for a sovereign maiden. Individuals, not asking for anything if they allow it, and not slacking off according to their will, freely dispose of their own specialty and their own authority. Panuє jealousy, "when there is power, that every right is mutual, nothing can be more than that." So that the norms (laws) of intercourse, which are at the natural camp, were finished, nature endowed the skin with the ability to judge quietly, who transgressed the law, and give them reprimands. However, in the natural state, daily organs, as if they could unfailingly vibrate super-girls among people, keep the blame on the broken natural laws, and so on.

With the method of superior security of natural rights, equanimity and freedom, the defense of specialness and power, people will be able to achieve political coherence, fall asleep state.

Locke especially accentuates the moment in time: "Whether it be a peacefully established power, it is not enough for its people to be at its core."

The power, behind Locke, is the collection of people who have united in one goal under the yoke of the established under the law and quiet, who, having created the judicial authority, is entitled to lay down conflicts between them and punish evil-doers. In other forms of collectivity (families, pansky volodins, lords' loners), the state rejoices at them, that it is not violating the political power, tobto. the right, in the name of a suspіlny good, to create laws (which transfer different sanctions) to regulate and save power, as well as the right to zastosovuvat the power of splіnoti for the vikonannya tsikh zakonnіv and zahistu powers in the attack of zzovnі.

The power is that social institution that controls the function of public (in Locke - political) power. Incredibly, obviously, instill such a nіbito congenital, given by nature itself, the skin of a person of power-permissive to speak to himself (plus about the reshta of people) and punish the guilty of others. However, Locke himself at the appointment of "natural" authorities іndivіda vbachav the first right and dzherelo like "legislator and vikonavchoї vladi, just like the very uryadіv i comrades". Here we can clearly show that individualism, which permeates the essence of practically all liberal political and legal doctrines.

J. Locke's theory of power and law has become a classic example of the ideology of the early non-bourgeois revolutions, with its strengths and weaknesses. Vono took away from him a wealth of political and legal knowledge and advanced scientific thought of the 17th century. The new one had access not just to the defense, but to the destruction and reshaping of the improvement of historical evidence, which the revolution in England gave. In this rank, the stench became an accessory to ensure that the political and legal life of the advancing XVIII century - the capital of Enlightenment and the two largest bourgeois revolutions of the new hour in Sunset: French and American.

This is how Montesque stood for the turns of liberalism. Montesque Charles Louis de (1689-1755) - French legal scholar and political philosopher, representative of the ideological current of Enlightenment of the XVIII century. To walk from a noble homeland. In the єzuїtskomu koledzhі otrimovnu podgotovnuyu z classical literature, and then for a long time vychav jurisprudence from Bordeaux and Parisi. From 1708, becoming involved in the practice of law. In 1716 p. having fallen from the uncle's name, camped, and put the head of the parliament of Bordeaux (set the ship's head at that hour). For a stretch of ten years, it is possible to bid on the obligations of the court from the employment of a rіznobіchny doslidnik and a writer. From 1728 p., after his eligibility for membership in the French Academy, the prices for the lands of Europe (Italy, Switzerland, Nymechchina, Holland, England) will rise sovereign ustriy, laws and zvichaї tsikh kraїn.

The political and legal ideals of enlightenment are more or less scattered by Montesqui in yoga works: "Persian Leaves" and "Think about the reasons for the greatness and fall of the Romans." Z 1731 p. I take credit for writing the fundamental work "About the Spirit of Laws", which will be anonymously published in Switzerland in 1748. Tvіr "About the spirit of laws" - an unprecedented work in jurisprudence at that time.

Sight-gazer Montesque was formed under the infusion of the French scientist J. Bodin in the history of law, the work of the Italian thinker J. Viko in the philosophy of history, and also the work of the English philosopher J. Locke. Natural science of the 18th century celebrated a special influx on Montesque. Montesque, having tried to reveal the objectively significant fallacies in the formation of laws, relying less on facts, taken away by an empirical way. Methods of guarding that povivnyannya become the main ones for the new one.

The fundamental novelty of Montesque's legal thought is based on the systemic method of investigation. Vіn looking at the law in vzaєmodії s with other elements dovkilla: "A lot of speeches are uttered by people: climate, religion, laws, principles of government, apply the past, sound, sound; as a result of all this, the incendiary spirit of the people is established." All qi factori є lansyug, the lances of which are inextricably tied to each other. To that, respecting Montesque, the strength of the meaning of one may be less than the strength of the weakening of the meaning of the other: "Which more strengthens the people for one of these reasons, the more weakens the meaning of others." Following such a manifestation, it is logical to assume that the law can become an important element in the life of society. Montesque, like a decision of educators, laying great hopes on reasonable laws as a guarantee of human freedom.

Freedom, having respected Montesque, may be secured only by laws: "Freedom is the right to do everything that is permitted by laws." But not every law of the building to secure freedom, but only those that are accepted by the people's representatives, which are regularly: "Freedom would not be in that moment, as if the legislators did not take it for a significant interval of time."

Human freedom, according to Montesque's thought, we must lie in front of criminal and tax-paying legislation. "Freedom is political," wrote Montesqui, "because of our security, or, accept, of our responsibility, that of our security." What can be achieved only for the mind of the justice of criminal and criminal procedural laws: vrіvnovazhuyut one of one, and a third person is needed for the ceremony.

Crazy staleness for Montesque is also due to human freedom and taxable legislation: "The per capita tax is more powerful to slavery, the tax on goods is freedom, to the one who does not so easily earn the person of the payer of taxes."

Laws, in view of which human freedom lies, are praised sovereignty. However, vvazha Montesk'є, tsyu vladu zdіysnyuyut people and s dosvіdu stolіt good vіdomo, scho "skin people, as maє vladu, it's easy to evil her." In order to escape the evil of power, it is necessary to spread between different organs: "If it were not possible to be evil of power, such an order of speeches is necessary, for which the power could mutually stream one another." Montesque, having developed the theory of the rule of power, relying on the fundamental sovereignty of England, indulging in the eyes of the sovereign.

Montesque, having respected the need, so that, be it a modern state, there would be a power of a lawmaker, a power of a judge, that power of a court.

The political and legal ideas of Montesque were injected into the formation of liberalism, as well as into the generations of theorists of law, legislators and politicians, - they staggered to the level of a supple legal system.

The ideas of the early representatives of John Locke Montesqui's liberalism and others, took away the continuation, ce bulo was connected with it, that the last third of the XVIII century. - an hour, if Europe quickly developed and flourished capitalism. A lot of factors brought together this environment, and a lot of characteristic phenomena accompanied yoga. The European political and legal thought in its own way described, explained and corrected the great social and historical changes that occurred in the country. The theme of the good-natured role of private authority, the theme of zeal and desire, the theme of activism of the individual, the guarantees of the insufficiency of the sphere of private life of people, etc., became central in modern science. tverezy rozrahunok on vytyag zіh dіy maximally special karistі. Rozrahunov Magi Mati Wide Diapason: VID PRGNENNIA OF PETOUTY SUTHOTH HITHICHIC, VIKENICE INIDILENY INNERES to Bazhannya Rozemno Polusnu Position of the INNISHIC, INSHIV SUSPANITY, SCHOTE ON ASSISTED OF THE STASHING OF THE STARTY OF THE STARTY OF THE STARTS.

The designs of this kind have a commemorative contribution by Jeremiah Bentham (1748-1832). Vin became the founder of the theory of utilitarianism, which took away from her a number of social and philosophical ideas of T. Hobbes, J. Locke, D. Hume, French materialists of the 18th century. Significantly chotiri postulates that lie at the її basis. The first one: the removal of satisfaction and the exclusion of suffering to become a sense of human activity. Another: korisnіst, mozhlivіst but vyvіshennya be-yakoy tasksі - the most important criterion for evaluating all phenomena. Third: morality is created by everyone, which is oriented towards the welfare of the greatest happiness (goodness) of the greatest number of people. Fourth: maximization of the deep-rooted path of establishing harmony between individual and subsistence interests as a means of developing people.

These postulates served as Bentham's pillars for an hour of analysis of politics, power, law, and legislation. bud. Kerіvnih ambushes of the constitutional code of all powers "(1828)," Deontology, chi Science about morality "(1815-1834) and others.

For a long time, Bentham was listed among the middle steps of European liberalism in the 19th century. I not bezpodstavno. Ale, Bentham's liberalism does not have a simple guise. Adopted by the core of liberalism is the provision about the freedom of the individual, that it is calmly powerful, about the autonomy of the expanse of activity, about the self-assertion of the individual, that it is safe for private power and political and legal regulations. Bentham

the will to lead a language not about the freedom of a sane person; at the focus of yoga respect is the interest and safety of special features. The person herself is guilty of talking about herself, about her good work and not relying on help from others. Only wine himself is guilty of determining why he is interested in him, why he is mischievous. Don't crush individuals, for Bentham's sake, "don't let others crush them and you'll grow enough for suspіlstva".

Zvіdsi zvіdsi zvіdsi zvіdzi zrozumіly vorozhenskiy bentaіvі vіpad vіd svobodu svobodnі: "There are few words, yakі would be so zgunі, like the words of freedom and yogo pokhіdnі".

Liberty and special rights were for Bentham the true instillations of evil, not recognizing them and foreseeing them, as if they had crossed over the school of natural law and the political and legal acts that were created by it. The rights of a human being, for Bentham, are the essence of a nitty-gritty, and not the rights of a human being are just a nitty-gritty on stilts. The French Declaration of the rights of a man and a hulk, zgіdno with Bentham, "metaphysical tvіr", parts (statti) of which can be divided into three classes:

a) unknowingly, b) hibni, c) at the same time і unknowingly, і hibni. Vіn stverdzhuє, nibi "tsі natural, inalienable and sacred rights, if they were founded ... stink of the unimaginable zі zberezhennyam, if they were constitutions ... the hulks, swaying them, asked for less anarchy ... ".

The sharply critical attitude of Bentham to the school of natural law was hung up on the ideas that were forbidden to him, and that the law was different. The reason for such a list of ideas is not so theoretical, but pragmatic and political. Quiet, who distinguishes the right and the law, wins dorikay, that with such a rank of stench they give the right of an anti-legal zmist.

"At this illegal sense, the word of law is the greatest enemy of the mind and the most terrible ruiner of the order ... The replacement of the one to discuss the laws of the law of their inheritance, the replacement of the one to signify, good stink chi filthy, these fanatics look at the established, natural law so they will replace the judgment to see everything with their chimeras.

Bentham's merit is to bring lawmaking to the old, archaic elements, to bring it to social, economic and political changes, which led to the success; I want to prostitize and thoroughly legislate the process, making the court procedure more democratic, and defending the court is also accessible to the poor. Golovna zagalna meta vsієї suspіlnoії system, for Bentham, - the most happiness of the greatest number of people.

England - the fatherland of European liberalism - gave the XIX century. the world of rich yoga representatives. And among them, John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) is seen with his inconsistency and strength in the ideological life of the era, on the onset of the liberal-democratic thought. Look at the classics of liberalism at the state, power, law, the law he wrote in such cases, like "About Freedom" (1859), "Think about the representative of the government" (1861), "Imagine political economy with some additions to social philosophy" (1848) .

Having begun his scientific and literary activity as a stalker of Bentham's utilitarianism, Mill will then come out into the open. Vіn, for example, dіyshov vysnovka, scho it is not possible to base all morality on the postulate of a special economic benefit of an individual and on virі in those who are not automatically brought to the well-being of all by being satisfied with the ugly interest of the skin. На його думку, принцип досягнення особистого щастя (задоволення) може "спрацьовувати", якщо він нерозривно, органічно пов'язаний з іншою керівною ідеєю: ідеєю необхідності узгодження інтересів, притому узгодження не лише інтересів окремих індивідів, але також і інтересів соціальних.

Mill is characterized by an orientation towards the construction of "moral", and also (in his mind), correct, models of the political and legal structure of the court. He himself speaks about it like this: “Now I marvel at the choice of political institutions, sooner from the moral and spiritual points of view, lower from the point of view of material interests. ", in the service of self-sufficiency.

All the same, I can share only a free person. Freedom of the individual is that "commanding high", with which Mill considers the key political and legal problems for himself. Їх traditional for liberalism: change your mind and change your mind about the freedom of human specialty, freedom, order and progress, optimal political means, interstate interventionism just.

Individual freedom, in the interpretation of Mill, means the absolute independence of a person in the sphere of peace and quiet, as if they directly hang out only on their own; won means the ability of a person to be in the midst of the circle of the sphere over oneself and to work in it for one’s own wisdom. Like the facets of individual freedom, Mill saw, zokrema, such moments: freedom of thought and thought (the calls are expressed), freedom to work together with other individuals, freedom to choose and re-examine life goals and independent dominance of a special share.

All points and disputes of freedom - absolutely necessary mind at rosettes, self-created individuals at once from them zaslіn in the event of any encroachment on the autonomy of specialty.

The threat of such autonomy is beyond Milla, not only in the institutions of the state themselves, not "only in the face of rank-and-file tyranny," but in the "tyranny of pan-wittedness in the supremacy of thought," looking at the greater. Spiritual-moral despotism, which is often practiced by the greater suspense, can leave behind, for its zhorstokistyu, "to instill those that we know in the political ideals of the best disciplines from ancient philosophies."

Vikrittya Millem to make the despotism of the public thought symptomatic. It is a kind of indicator of what began to take hold in the middle of the 19th century. Europe's "mass democracy" threatens the lack of specialness, the "average" people, the strangulation of individuality.

Mіl vіrno catching tsiu nebezpeku. In view of what has been said above, it is not obvious, neither the power, nor the bulky thought, in principle, is not authorized to legally re-examine, the moral primus.

And those other times it is true, as if with their help, they get ahead (pripinyayutsya) of the individual, who is to command bad people to people who will feel yoga, Suspіlstvo. Showing in this connection are those that Mill at any time does not recognize individual freedom with self-confidence, permissiveness and other asocial speeches. If we talk about the freedom of individuals, then we can take care of people who have already been educated to civilization, cultivated, as if they have reached the level of civil-moral development.

Freedom of an individual, a private individual is the first thing political structures and its functioning. Tsya virishalna, for Milla, the situation is to put the power in the fallow in the will of that vmіnnya people to create and create a normal (with the attained standards of European civilization) human herds. The knowledge of such fallows prompts Mill to look over the early liberal outlook on the state. Vіn vіdmovlyаєєєєєєєєє bachiti in the new setting, filthy for their nature, in іії more yоu know, suffering a priori good, unfailingly good suspіlstvo. "Zreshtoy, - pіdsumovє Mill, - the power will always be not better and not worse, lower individual, її warehousing". Sovereignty is like that of prosperity as a whole, and to that it is in the first place in the first place, it is far beyond the yogo camp. The head of the mind is the foundation of a great power - self-perfection to the people, high as people, members of that society, for which the power is assigned.

Right - the problem of standing against the "enemy". The main enemy for them is communism, and the main bosses are the permission of Europe to communism. It’s directly with the theorists of this, the head of the uncertainty of the current political awareness, nurtured by liberalism, is an underestimation of the uncertainty and uncertainty to the point of fortune-telling: the process of moral confusion in the backwaters of the rabbits is so far away that the struggle is not for life, but ...

Ideology is made more difficult by the folding, the rіznomanіttyam, and the super-fluidity of social and political processes. 4. Directing the integration of the suspension. Vislovlyuchi interests of singing social group chi class, political ideology is aimed at the unification of social welfare. The most clearly integrative function is manifested in national ideologies, as if to organize the formation of all representatives of the nation.