What is called temperature. The temperature is a function of the physicist. Temperature as kinetic energy

Temperature (in physical) Temperature(Vid lat. temperatura - well-balanced, proportionate, normal body), a physical quantity that characterizes the body of a thermodynamically equal macroscopic system. T. is the same for all parts of the isolated system, which are found in Rivnovagi thermodynamic. If the system is insulated without being re-introduced, then after an hour the transfer of energy (heat transfer) from more heated parts of the system to a lesser temperature leads to the elimination of T. in the entire system (the first postulate or a zero cob) thermodynamics). T. vyznaє: rozpodіl approve the system of particles according to equal to energy(Div. Boltzmann statistics) that rozpodіl chastok for shvidkosti (div. Maxwell rozpodіl); steps of ionization of speech (div. Sakha formula); the power of an equally important electromagnetic variation of the body - the spectral width of the variation (div. Plank law of viprominuvannya); Stefan-Boltzmann law of change) and so on. radiation temperature. Oskіlki for a system that is in thermodynamic equilibrium, all parameters are equal to one another, they are simply called the temperature of the system. At kinetic theory of gases that in. distribution of statistical mechanics T. kіlkisno vyznaєєє so that the average kinetic energy of the progressive movement of the particle (which is volody trioma steps of freedom) is more T, de k - Boltzmann Postiyna, T- body temperature. In the wild temperament of T., it is recognized as pokhіdna in the form of energy of the body as a whole for yoga entropy. Such T. is always positive (sparks of kinetic energy are positive), її are called absolute T. or T. for the thermodynamic temperature scale. For a unit of absolute T. in International System of Ones(СІ) accepted kelvin(TO). Often T. is vimiryuyut behind the Celsius scale (t), the value of t is related to T equal to t = T √ 273.15 K (degree Celsius is more Kelvin). Methods of vimiryuvannya T. reviewed in articles Thermometry, Thermometer.

Strictly singing T. is characterized by a less equal stan tіl. However, systems, systems of which can be approximately characterized by many different temperatures. For example, in plasma, which is made up of light (electrons) and important (ions) charged particles, when particles are charged, energy is quickly transferred from electrons to electrons and ions to ions, but more often from electrons to ions and back. Іsnuyu become a plasma, in some systems of electrons and ions are close to equal, and it is possible to introduce T. electrons T e ta T. ioniv T і , do not escape among themselves.

At the bodies, parts of them can be magnetic moment, the energy sounds properly transferred from progressive to magnetic degrees of freedom, due to the possibility of changing the magnetic moment directly. Zavdyakov to whom it becomes necessary, in which the system of magnetic moments is characterized by T., which does not change with the kinetic T., which confirms the progressive movement of particles. Magnetic T. signifies the magnetic part of the internal energy and can be both positive and negative (div. Negative temperature). In the process of vibrating T., energy is transferred from particles (steps of freedom) from greater T. to particles (steps of freedom) from less T., which means that the stench is positive or negative at the same time, but it is directly at the turning point, that one of them is positive, and the other is negative. In this sense, T. is negative.

Understanding T. zastosovuyt also characteristics of nervous systems (div. Thermodynamics of irrelevant processes). For example, the beauty of heavenly bodies characterizes hot temperature, spectral warehouse viprominuvannya - color temperature and etc.

L. F. Andreev.

Great Radianska Encyclopedia. - M: Radianska Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

Marvel at the same "Temperature (in physical)" in other dictionaries:

- ... Wikipedia

TEMPERATURE, in biology, the intensity of heat. In warm-blooded (HOMOIOTHERM) creatures, such as birds and savts, body temperature is maintained at narrow boundaries independently of temperature dovkilla. Tse is delusional m'yazovoy. Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

Razmіrnіst Θ Odinitsі vimіru СІК ... Wikipedia

Boiling temperature, boiling point, temperature, at which the boiling point of the radii is found, which is under the constant pressure. The temperature of the boiling point is the temperature of the high steam above the flat surface of the boiling hot water, to that ... Wikipedia

The most important element, which characterizes the weather, is the T. of the gaseous medium, which leaves the earth's surface, more correctly, T. looks at that ball, which inspires our guard. With meteorological warnings, which element should be introduced first. Encyclopedic dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

temperature- 1) The value, which characterizes the physical body at the thermal level station, is related to the intensity of the thermal fluctuation of the parts of the body; 2) heat stage human body as a sign of health; rozg. moving the heat steps of the body at… Historical and etymological dictionary of Latin retrogrades

It is necessary to revise the translation and bring the article in line with the stylistic rules of Wikipedia. You can help ... Wikipedia

History of technologies Over the periods and regions: Neolithic revolution Ancient technologies to Egypt Science and technologies of ancient India Science and technologies of ancient China Technologies of ancient Greece Technologies of ancient Rome Technological …

Temperature, which characterizes the stability of a thermodynamic system, in which it is possible to develop a system in a microstation more high energy higher, lower at the microstane with the lower. In quantum statistics, tse means that ... ... Wikipedia

The skin of a person is constantly sticking out of the understanding of temperature. The term mіtsno uvіyshov to our everyday life: we play in micro-furnace produce or get ready to eat in the oven, the weather on the streets, or we know that the water is cold in the river - all this is clearly explained by these understandings. And what is the temperature, what does this physical parameter mean, why does it have to be controlled? On qі and іnshі nutrition vіdpоvіmo у statі.

Physical quantity

Let's take a look at what the temperature looks like in an insulated system, what it is in a thermodynamic equilibrium. The term came from the Latin language and means "well-balanced", "normal standard", "proportionality". Tsya value characterizes the state of thermodynamic equivalence of any macroscopic system. In that case, if the system is isolated, the position is equal, with an hour there is a transition of energy from heated objects to less heat. As a result, the temperature of the entire system will be changed (changed). This is the first postulate (zero cob) of thermodynamics.

The temperature determines the distribution of the warehouse particles of the system for equal energy and fluidity, the steps of the ionization of speech, the power of the equally important electromagnetic vibration of the body, the total volume of the vibration. So, as for the system, as it is known in the thermodynamic equation, the listed parameters of the equation, it is customary to call it the temperature of the system.

Plasma

Crimium of equally important bodies, based on systems, in some countries are characterized by dekilkom temperature values that are not equal to each other. A good butt is plasma. It is made up of electrons (light charged particles) and ions (important charged particles). When їх zіtknennyah vіdbuvaєє shvidka transfer of energy from the electron to the electron and from the ion to the ion. And from between heterogeneous elements, there is a proper transition. Plasma can be in the station, with some electronics and they are close to equal. At this time, it is possible to take the same temperature as the skin type of the particles. However, among themselves, these parameters are taken into account.

magneti

In the bodies, in which particles have a magnetic moment, the transfer of energy sounds properly: in the form of progressive to magnetic steps of freedom, as if due to the possibility of changing directly in the moment. To go out, which one becomes aware of, for which bodies are characterized by temperature, which does not change with the kinetic parameter. Vaughn supports the progressive movement of elementary particles. The magnetic temperature determines a part of the internal energy. It can be both positive and negative. In the process of virivnyuvannya, energy is transferred from small parts with higher values to particles with lower values of temperature in that case, which means that the stench is either positive or negative at the same time. In an unacceptable situation, this process is similar to the reverse one - a negative temperature will be “higher” for a positive one.

What else do you need?

The paradox lies in the fact that the inhabitant, in order to carry out the process of vimiryuvannya, as in the case, so in trade, it is not necessary to know what the temperature is like. For the new one, it will be sufficient to understand what are the steps of the heating of the object of the medium, moreover, we know children with these terms. Indeed, the majority of practical devices, recognized for the choice of parameter, in fact, change the power of speeches, as they change in the form of heating or cooling. For example, a vice, an electric support, the volume is too thin. Give this indication manually or automatically change the value you need.

To go out to measure the temperature, it is not necessary to study physics. Behind this principle, the majority of the population of our planet lives. If you use a TV set, then it is not necessary to sort out in the transitional processes of the heaters, the wires, the lights are taken from the electrician in the socket, or else how to get a signal on the satellite dish. People called that in the skin area there are fahivts, that they can help or improve the system. The inhabitant doesn't want to strain his brain, even if it's better to marvel at a mile opera or football on "shukhlyadi", sipping cold beer.

And I want to know

And then there are people, most of them students, either in the world of their own drinking, or for the need of madness, they learn physics and determine what the temperature is right. As a result, they stink at their own expense, and at the same time, they have zero thermodynamics, the first and the other laws. In addition, the drunken mind will touch the Carnot cycles and entropy. And for example, your way of wines, sing-songly, knowing that the temperature is set as a parameter of a circulating thermal system, so as not to fall into the type of a working speech, not to add clarity to the intelligible understanding. And all one visible part will be praised by the international system of loneliness (SI) like degrees.

Temperature as kinetic energy

More "obvious" is pidkhid, which is called the molecular-kinetic theory. A new manifestation is being formed that heat is seen as one of the forms of energy. For example, the kinetic energy of molecules and atoms, the parameter, averaging over a great number of parts that chaotically collapse, is a measure of what is usually called body temperature. So, parts of the heated system collapse faster, lower cold.

Oskіlki terms, as seen, closely related to the average kinetic energy of a group of particles, it would be quite natural in the same way as the temperature of vicoristing a joule. Tim is not less, which is not seen, but it is explained by him that the energy of the thermal rush of elementary particles is even small in terms of joule. For this reason yoga is not handy. Thermal ruh vanish in loneliness, taking away s joules from the view of a special perekazny coefficient.

Single temperature control

On this day, there are three main units for the selection of this parameter. In our country, the temperature is taken to be in degrees Celsius. At the basis of the singleness of the world lies the point of the stronghold of the water - an absolute value. Vaughn є cob vіdlіku. That is the temperature of the water, for which the ice begins to settle, and it is zero. At to this particular type water to serve as a bright light. All mental meanings were taken for clarity. Another absolute value is the temperature of the steam, which is the moment when water from a rare turn into a gas-like one.

Stepping loneliness is degrees beyond Kelvin. On the cob it is customary to take into account the point of absolute zero. So, one degree Kelvin is equal to one degree Celsius. Vіdminnistyu є less than an ear of vіdlіku. Note that zero Kelvin is more equal than minus 273.16 degrees Celsius. In 1954, at the General Conference of the World and Vag, it was decided to replace the term "degree Kelvin" for the unit of temperature with "kelvin".

The third infamous unity of the world is the degrees Fahrenheit. Until 1960, rock stench was widely celebrated in all English lands. However, even today the United States beats every single one. The system is fundamentally reviewed according to the descriptions above. For the cob, the freezing temperature of the sum of salt is taken, I will rub it with water in the proportion of 1:1:1. So, on the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is plus 32 degrees, and the boiling point is plus 212 degrees. In this system, one degree is equal to 1/180 of the difference between these temperatures. So, the range of air from 0 to +100 degrees Fahrenheit corresponds to the range of air -18 to +38 degrees Celsius.

Absolute zero temperature

Let's figure out what this parameter means. Absolute zero is called the value of the boundary temperature, if the pressure of an ideal gas turns to zero with a fixed condition. The lowest value in nature. Yak conveyed Mikhailo Lomonosov, "the greatest or the last step of the cold." Why does Avogadro's chemical law stand out: in equal gas pressures, the same number of molecules abide by the same temperature and pressure. What are you yelling at? Іsnuє minimal gas temperature, for which yogo vice or obsyag turn to zero. Tsya absolute value is equal to zero for Kelvin, or 273 degrees for Celsius.

Dekilka tsіkavih facts about Sonyachnu system

The temperature on the surface of the sun reaches 5700 kelvins, and in the center of the core - 15 million kelvins. The planets of the Sonyachny system are strongly permeated one by one for equal heating. So, the temperature of the core of our Earth becomes about a few stilki, skilki on the surface of the Sun. Jupiter is the most powerful planet. The temperature in the center of the th core is five times higher, lower on the surface of the Sun. And the axis of the lowest value of the parameter was fixed on the surface of the Moon - it became less than 30 kelvin. Go lower, lower Pluto.

Facts about the earth

1. The real temperature value, as recorded by the person, was 4 billion degrees Celsius. The value of y is 250 times higher than the temperature of the Sontsya core. The record was set by the New York Brookhaven Nature Laboratory in the ion collider, which is about 4 kilometers long.

2. The temperature on our planet is not always ideal but comfortable. For example, near Verkhnoyansk in Yakutia, the temperature in the winter period drops to minus 45 degrees Celsius. And the axis in the Ethiopian city of Dallol is a pivotal situation. There, the average temperature becomes plus 34 degrees.

3. The most extreme mind, for which people work, fixed in gold mines near Pivdenny Africa. The miners work at a depth of three kilometers at a temperature of plus 65 degrees Celsius.

Thermodynamic temperature

Thermodynamic temperature(English) thermodynamic temperature nim. thermodynamic temperature), or absolute temperature(English) absolute temperature nim. absolute temperature) I will become a single function of a thermodynamic system, as it characterizes directly mimic heat exchange between bodies (systems).

Thermodynamic temperature is denoted by the letter T (\displaystyle T), is measured in kelvins (indicated by K) and is based on the absolute thermodynamic scale (Kelvin scale). The absolute thermodynamic scale is the main scale in physics and thermodynamics.

Molecular-kinetic theory, on its own side, shows the absolute temperature from the average kinetic energy of the translational movement of molecules of an ideal gas in the minds of thermodynamic equilibrium:

1 2 m v 2 = 3 2 k T , (\displaystyle (\frac (1)(2))m(\bar (v))^(2)=(\frac (3)(2))kT,)

de m (\displaystyle m) - mass of the molecule, v - (displaystyle (bar (v))) - root-mean-square speed of the translational movement of molecules, T (displaystyle T) - absolute temperature, k (displaystyle k) - constant Boltzmann.

History

The temperature has passed a long and important way in its development. Oskіlki temperature can be killed without a middle, then її victorious victoriously fought the power of thermometric bodies, as if they were overwhelmed by the functional fallowness in the temperature. On this basis, different temperature scales were divided, so that they took away the name empirical, and the temperature is called empirical. Іstotnimi nedolіkami Empirical scales - the existence of their continuity and the diversity of temperature values for various thermometric bodies: both between reference points, and beyond their boundaries. The fact that the empirical scales are non-permanent is due to the fact that the nature of speech, as a rule, preserve its power in the entire range of possible temperatures. In 1848, the fate of Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proponuvav vibrati degree of the temperature scale in such a way that the efficiency of an ideal heat engine would be the same at the same time. Nadali, 1854 to the fate of wines, proponing the victorious Carnot function for inducing a thermodynamic scale, so as to lie in the power of thermometric bodies. Prote, the practical implementation of this idea seemed impossible. At the beginning of the 19th century, the search for “absolute” devices for temperature control turned back to the idea of an ideal gas thermometer, which is based on the laws of ideal gases of Gay-Lussac and Charles. A gas thermometer that lasts for an hour is the only way to determine the absolute temperature. New lines in the creation of an absolute temperature scale are based on the variation of Stefan-Boltzmann in non-contact thermometry and Harry (Harry) Nyquist in contact.

Physical foundations of the thermodynamic temperature scale

1. The thermodynamic temperature scale can be based on the basis of Carnot's theorem, which confirms that the coefficient of the core function of an ideal heat engine does not depend on the nature of the working body and the design of the engine, and only on the temperatures of the heating and refrigerator.

η = Q 1 − Q 2 Q 1 = T 1 − T 2 T 1 , (\displaystyle \eta =(\frac (Q_(1)-Q_(2))(Q_(1)))=(\frac ( T_(1)-T_(2))(T_(1))),)

de Q 1 (\displaystyle Q_(1)) - amount of heat taken by the working body (ideal gas) from the heater, Q 2 (\displaystyle Q_(2)) - amount of heat taken by the working body of the refrigerator, T 1 , T 2 ( \displaystyle T_(1),T_(2)) - heating temperature of the refrigerator, depending on.

From the point of view of the above, there is a clear spiving:

Q 1 Q 2 = T 1 T 2 . (\displaystyle (\frac (Q_(1))(Q_(2)))=(\frac (T_(1))(T_(2))).)

Tse spіvvіdnoshennia can be vikoristane for encouragement absolute thermodynamic temperature. Just one of the isothermal processes in the Carnot cycle Q 3 (\displaystyle Q_(3)) is carried out at the temperature of the last point of the water (reference point), set quite ─ T 3 = 273 , 16 K , (\displaystyle T_(3)=273(, )16\,K,) then whether or not the temperature is determined by the formula T = 273 , 16 Q Q 3 (displaystyle T=273(,)16(frac (Q)(Q_(3)))) . Installed in this way, the temperature scale is called thermodynamic Kelvin scale. It's a pity, the accuracy of the calculation of the amount of heat is not high, which makes it possible to implement the above descriptions in a practical way.

2. The absolute temperature scale can be induced, so that it can be measured as a thermometric body of an ideal gas. In fact, Clapeyron's jealousy is blatant

T = p V R . (\displaystyle T=(\frac (pV)(R)).)

In order to suppress the pressure of gas, close to the power of the ideal, which is in a hermetic vessel of constant volume, then in such a way it is possible to insert a temperature scale, as I can name ideal gas. The value of the scale is affected by the fact that the pressure of an ideal gas at V = c o n s t (displaystyle V = const) changes linearly with temperature. Oscilki navit strongly razredzhenі gas because of their dominance deshcho vіznyayutsya in the ideal gas, the implementation of the ideal gas scale is associated with the same difficulties.

3. In various assistants of thermodynamics, it is necessary to prove that the temperature, which is measured beyond the ideal gas scale, changes with thermodynamic temperature. Slid, however, signify: regardless of those that are numerically thermodynamic and ideal gas scales are absolutely identical, from the point of view of the gap between them, the principle of difference. Only a thermodynamic scale is absolutely independent of the power of thermometric speech.

4. As it was designated, more precisely, the implementation of the thermodynamic scale, and to create an ideal gas scale, due to serious difficulties. At the first stage, it is necessary to resolutely reduce the amount of heat, as it is introduced in the isothermal processes of an ideal heat engine. So vimiri inaccurate. The creation of a thermodynamic (ideal-gas) temperature scale in the range from 10 to 1337 K is possible with the aid of a gas thermometer. For more high temperatures, the diffusion of real gas through the walls of the tank is clearly manifested, and for temperatures near a thousand degrees, rich atomic gases break up into atoms. For even higher temperatures, real gases are ionized and transformed into plasma, as Clapeyron does not follow the order. The most low temperature, as can be measured with a gas thermometer, filled with helium at a low pressure, up to 1 K. More div. thermometry.

Determination of temperature and detection

The main damage in the system of supplying fire for low temperatures is due to cloudy temperature and overheating of fire. On top of gasoline in diesel fuels, you can add rich carbohydrates with a high melting point, instead of paraffin (alkano) and aromatic carbohydrates.

At lower temperatures, the most high melting points in carbohydrates fall out of the fire like crystals of various shapes, the fire is calamous. The highest temperature, for which it burns openness, is called cloudy temperature. With whom, the pain does not waste the power of plinness. Viscosity values increase insignificantly when the temperature rises, the crystals, penetrating through the coarse filter, make an impenetrable spitting on a thin filter, which is produced until the fire is applied. The turbidity temperature, as a rule, is to blame but 3-5 ° C lower than the temperature of the superfluous medium. With a slight cooling of the DP, there is a growth of a few crystals near the frame, which permeates everything pale, fettering yoga. Palyvotrachaet plinnіst.

With a little chilling, the crystals of high-melting carbohydrates start to cool down, satisfying the expanses of the mountains, in the closets of which rare carbohydrates become depleted. We sweat the structure that settles down, the flooring changes, that it burns flatness - it catches. I find the temperature, for which it is hot, I use plinth, I call it the temperature of being caught. Vaughn can be 8-12 °C lower than the temperature of the right middle. Temperature caught the temperature is important, when pouring diesel fuel into the test tube, when cooled, it does not change the position of the meniscus with a stretch of 1 hv when the test tubes are cold under the cut 45 vertically (GOST 20287-91). The temperature of catching a diesel fire is a value of the mind and is only a guideline for the minds of the heat of the fire.

Ownership: an attachment for indicating temperature and cloudiness; tripod laboratory; reagents for cooling sumishes (strong ice for temperatures up to minus 20 ° C; alcohol and carbonic acid - dry ice - for temperatures below minus 20 ° C); test tube; paliva star; sulfuric acid.

Rice. 2.3. Appliance for determining the temperature of the cloudiness and the burning of the fire: 1 - test tube of soundness; 2 – test tube internal; 3 - plug; 4 - thermometer; 5 - mixer

Order of vikonannya roboti:

The sustenance of the temperature of the turbid paliva is falling in a deep chilled and visual guard for the snake of the yoga camp. The day of the appointed temperature, when caught, is near a deep chilled fire until I become friable.

1. As soon as you have tasted it, thoroughly mix it up and pour it into the inner test tube to the mark (40 mm mark is applied to the bottom). Close the test tube with a cork stopper and a thermometer. Insert the thermometer in such a way that one mercury bag was found in samples on a 15 mm stand from the bottom and even from the walls.

2. Pour the sample into another test tube, as a vicarious drink as a sign of transparency.

3. Fill the dishes with an attachment of a cooling bag, trim the rhubarb by 30-40 mm more than the rhubarb of the fire in the sample. The temperature of the cooling sum during sampling for the whole hour is 15 ± 2 °C lower than the temperature of the tested fire.

4. Check the inner test tube with a fire and a thermometer at the outer test tube. In order to avoid sweating of the inner walls between the test tubes, pour sulfuric acid in a quantity of 0.5-1.0 ml.

5. Place the pickings with the sumish, which is cold. Palyvo under the hour of cooling is constantly mixed.

6. For 5 °C before the cloudy temperature, the test tube is wilted with a cold-juvenile sum, swept with cotton wool, soaked in alcohol, and swept with a standard. Trivality of the appointment of a troch is more than 12 z.

7. Even though it has not changed, the test tube is again lowered near the vessel and carried out more carefully through the skin degree, lowering the temperature of the fire. Tsі pіvnyalnі vigilantly z clearly vibrate until the hour when you become lividly vіrіznyatissі vіzrazka, i.e., like a kalamut will appear at the new one. When the cloudy temperature of an invisible fire is determined, the values \u200b\u200bof these temperatures are set approximately by a guardrail behind the fire camp through the skin 5 ° С.

8. To determine the temperature of scorching the fire, it is necessary to prepare an accessory from testing the water (with the help of freshly calcined calcium chloride) fire. Place the preparation of the attachment in a bowl with the motherland, which is cool. The temperature of the cooling sumishi is due to buti by 5 ° C lower than the pre-batch temperature, and the fire is overwhelmed.

9. Not viymayuchi z holodzhuvalnoy sumishі, nahility prilad under kutom 45 ° and trim in such a position stretching one whilin, the docks were tested pale in sample, take the temperature, which is the temperature of the yogo caught.

10. Win the test tube with sumish, it’s cold, wipe the walls with cotton wool soaked in alcohol, and watch out that the meniscus is not swollen. If the meniscus is not folded, then we will overtake it and catch it. If the temperature of the fire is not known to be approximately, the test of the affected meniscus is carried out through the skin at a temperature of 5 ° C, the temperature of the fire is lowered. The temperature of the sumishi in this season is trimmed 4-5 ° lower than the temperature of the fire. After testing the attachment, it is necessary to bring it to the cob position. Otrimanu temperature por_vnyati іz pokanikami GOST.

Determination of the cetane number of diesel fuel by the rozrachunk method

The building of diesel fuel is self-assessed by the cetane number (CN). The method for assessing the self-employment of fires for diesel engines is similar to the method for assessing the knock resistance of gasolines. In the capacity of reference fires for the purpose of self-employment, two carbohydrates are selected: cetane 16 H 34 and alphamethylnaphthalene 10 H 7 CH 3. Self-employment of the first in carbohydrates is mentally taken as 100, the other - for 0. By changing them, you can take the sum of self-employment from 0 to 100. In this order, cetane number a mental indicator is called, numerically equal to the percentage of cetane in such a mixture with alphamethylnaphthalene, as for self-employment, it confirms the test.

The cetane number of DP is determined by the zbіgu spalakhіv method (Fig. 2.4).

For bezvіdmovnoї work today's dvigunіv pribіbnіv pіbіbіv with cetane number vlіtku - no less than 45, vzimku - 50. If the cetane number is lower than 45 diesels pratsyuyut zhorstko, especially vzimku, and more than 45 - softly. Prote vikoristovuvaty paliva with a cetane number higher than 60 is unprofitable, the hardness of the work at its own changes insignificantly, and the pet vitrata paliva grows. It remains to be explained that when the CCH rises over the 55th period of lure (an hour from the beginning of the supply of fuel to the cylinder of the engine to the top of the mountain), the flooring is small, which is very close to the nozzle, and again, which is far away from the mist, may be affected burning processes. As a result, the burner does not burn hotly, the economy of the engine decreases.

DP does not need to ensure the necessary self-employment, this is due to the need to increase the cetane number. There are two main methods: change chemical warehouse and the introduction of special additives.

As for the reliability of the cold start of the engine due to the different temperatures of the navkolishny middle, then the fault of the greater world lies in the design of the engine and the start-up mode, lower in the temperature of the heating center. When the temperature in the combustion chamber is lower than 350-400 °C, combustible sumish can no longer be ignited. The minimum starting frequency for wrapping the crankshaft of a diesel engine is 100-120 hv-1. The higher the starting frequency, the higher the temperature, the more the pressure is, and therefore the smarter the start of the engine.

The cetane number is to be deposited in the future and in carbohydrates, which enters the warehouse of the DP. The cetane numbers of alkanes are the highest, lowest numbers of aromatics in carbohydrates. In carbohydrates, which enter to the warehouse of DP, the CC is mixed in an offensive order: 1 - alkanes, 2 - cycloalkanes, 3 - isoalkanes, 4 - aromatic in carbohydrates. The increase in the number of carbon atoms in carbohydrate molecules should be brought to an increase in the cetane number. In this rank, the promotion of n-alkanes together to bring the Central Ch to an improvement. However, n-alkanes have a high crystallization temperature, which leads to a decrease in the low-temperature power of diesel fuel.

The introduction of special sour additives into the DP will help to lightly see the active sour. Before such additives, organic peroxide, collapsible ethers of nitric acid, are added, which, drank into the combustion chamber, speed up the peroxide digestion, as soon as self-storage is laid out. So, the addition of 1% isopropyl nitrate raises the CC by 10-12 units and improves the start-up of the power of the DP during the winter hour. The Іsnuє empіrіchna zalezhіnі cetane number paliva z th octane number.

TsCh \u003d 60 - OCH / 2, (2.4)

de CCH - cetane number; OC - octane number.

The higher the octane number, the lower the cetane number and the same. To that, adding to the diesel fuel of gasoline fractions, you need to lead to a decrease in the cetane number.

The cetane number can be approximated by the formula (minimizing the result is taken as a decimal by 2-3 units):

Ts.Ch. = 1.5879 (ν 20 + 17.8) / ρ 20 , (2.5)

de 20 - viscosity of fire in cSt at 20°C; ρ 20 - paliva thickness at 20 ° C, g / cm3.

What is the temperature?

Vіdpovіdі type "peace warming body" is not accepted))))))

Vitalik obukhiv

Temperature (from Lat. temperatura - well-balanced, normal state) is a physical quantity that approximately characterizes the average kinetic energy of the particles of a macroscopic system, which falls on one step of freedom, which is in the state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
In the CI system, the temperature is controlled by Kelvins. Ale, in practice, often freeze degrees Celsius through binding to important water characteristics - ice tanning temperature (0 ° C) and boiling temperature (100 ° C). Tse sruchno, oskіlki bіlshіst klіmatichnіh protsesіv, protsesі v zhivіy prirodі just pov'yazanі z tsіm range.
Also use the Fahrenheit scale and others.
The temperature from the molecular-kinetic point of view is a physical quantity that characterizes the intensity of the chaotic, thermal movement of all the aggregate particles of the system and is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the progressive movement of one particle.
The connection between the kinetic energy, the mass and the speed is expressed by the following formula:
Ek = 1/2m v 2
In this way, particles of the same mass and can have the same swedishness, can have the same temperature.
The average kinetic energy of the part is related to the thermodynamic constant temperature of Boltzmann:
Esr = i/2kBT
de:
i - number of steps of freedom
kB = 1.380 6505(24) × 10−23 J/K - Boltzmann constant
T is temperature;
Temperature is a value that is reversed to a change in entropy (step without a scale) of the system when a single amount of heat is added to the system: 1/T = ΔS/ΔQ.
[ed.] History of thermodynamic approach
The word "temperature" vanished in those hours, if people were aware that in heated bodies there was more and more special speech - caloric, less heated. Therefore, the temperature was accepted as the mіtsnіst sumіshi speech of the body and caloric. From the point of view of the reason for the unicity of the vimir of the minerality of alcoholic drinks and the temperature, they are called the same - degrees.
In an equally important station, the temperature may be the same for all macroscopic parts of the system. If two bodies in the system maintain the same temperature, then there is no transfer of kinetic energy of particles (heat) between them. As there is a difference in temperatures, then the heat passes from the body to a higher temperature to the body from the lower one, because of the total entropy at this growth.
The temperature is also associated with the subjective sensations of "heat" and "cold", associated with it, because the tissue is alive and warm, and it takes yoga.
Acting quantum-mechanical systems can be in the camp, at which the entropy does not increase, but decreases with additional energy, which formally shows a negative absolute temperature. However, in such a way, one should not be “lower than absolute zero”, but “higher than inconsistency”, shards in contact with such a system with a body that has a positive temperature, energy is transferred from the system to the body, and not out of the way (report by div. Quantum thermodynamics).
The dominance of temperature is a division of physics - thermodynamics. Temperature also plays an important role in many areas of science, including other divisions of physics, as well as chemistry and biology.

Beaver

Like "on the fingers", then the world's average energy of particles of speech. Like talking about gas or native - kinetic energy, like talking about solid speech, like the energy of chopping particles in the grates.
It is important here that the world is the most middle energy, that even if there are few particles, then understanding the temperature and losing the sense. For example, near the cosmos: there are frequent wearers, but there are not enough of them so that the average energy is not enough sense.

Dmitro Bud.

The beaver, in principle, correctly wrote, only the splitting of particles in the ratahs is also kinetic energy. , so the shortest way is:
temperature is the world's average kinetic energy of the structural particles of speech.

The paradox lies in the fact that it is not necessary to know what “temperature” is in order to control the temperature in the application, industry and instill in applied science. Finishing the pouring of the frequent manifestation that “temperature is the step heating tila". Indeed, most practical devices for temperature control actually control the power of speech, which changes depending on the degree of heat, such as vice, volume, electric opir, etc. Then we will automatically show them or manually reset them to one temperature.

Drinking people are students, if they want to, or if they are confused, what is the temperature, they start drinking at the element of thermodynamics with zero, first and other laws, the Carnot cycle and entropy. It is necessary to know that the temperature is assigned as a parameter of an ideal circulating heat engine, so as not to lie in a working speech, it does not add clarity to our intelligible understanding of "temperature".

More "obvious" seems to be pidkhid, the title of molecular-kinetic theory, from which the manifestation is formed, that heat can be seen simply as one of the forms of energy, and itself - the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules. Tsya value, averaged over the majestic number of chastices, which are ruthlessly collapsing, and appears as a measure of what is called body temperature. Particles of the heated body crumble faster than the cold one.

The shards of understanding the temperature are closely related to the average kinetic energy of the particles, it would be natural and as one of the only ones to win the joule. However, the energy of thermal circulation is often even small compared to the joule, so the number of magnitudes seems to be unmanageable. The thermal momentum is measured in other units, which come out of joules for the help of the variable coefficient "k".

Since the temperature T is measured in kelvins (K), then the relationship between the average kinetic energy of the forward movement of atoms in an ideal gas can be seen

E k = (3/2) kT, (1)

De k- Perekazny coefficient, which means that part of the joule is measured in kelvin. Value k is called postіynym Boltzmann.

Vrahovyuchi, that the pressure can also be induced through the average energy of the molecules

p=(2/3)n E k (2)

De n = N/V, V- obsyag, occupied by gas, N- outside the number of molecules in which obsyazі

Rivnyannya I will become an ideal gas matima looking:

p = nkT

Even more than the number of molecules of tax in the eyes N = µN A, de µ - Number of moles of gas, N A- Avagadro's number, that is the number of particles per mole, can be easily taken from the Clapeyron-Mendeliev equation:

pV = µ RT, de R - molar gas pressure R= N A.k

or for one mole pV = N A . kT(3)

In this rank, temperature - ce piecewise introductions at equal will become a parameter. For additional help, I will be able to determine the thermodynamic temperature T, as well as all the other parameters of the constants. From such a temperature, it is obvious that the value of T depends on the Boltzmann constant. How can we choose for which proportionality coefficient a sufficient value and then rely on the new one? Ni. Even so, we can take the value of 273.16 K for the last point of the water in this way, so we can take the value of 273.16 K! Blame nutrition - why itself 273.16 K?

The reasons for this are historical, not physical. On the right, in the first temperature scales, exact values were taken for two water states - the hardening point (0 ° C) and the boiling point (100 ° C). Ce bule umovnі meaning, chosen for clarity. Vrahovyuchi, sho degree Celsius to the degree of Kelvin and vikonuyuvannya thermodynamic temperature gas thermometer, graduating at these points, for absolute zero (0 °K) was taken by the method of extrapolation value - 273.15 °C. Of course, the value should be more accurate than that, as if measured with a gas thermometer, it was absolutely accurate. Tse not so. Therefore, fixing the value of 273.16 for the loss of water, and having measured the boiling point of water more thoroughly with a gas thermometer, you can easily take the value for boiling at 100 ° C. For example, at the same time, the most realistic value is 99.975 °C. It is more important that early robotics with a gas thermometer gave the same value for absolute zero. In this way, we either fix absolute zero, or else an interval of 100 ° C between the points of hardening and boiling of water. To fix the interval and repeat for extrapolation to absolute zero, then we take -273.22 °C.

Have 1954 p. The CIPM adopted a resolution on the transition to a new designation of kelvin, not related to the interval 0 -100 °C. It actually stuck a value of 273.16 K (0.01 ° C) behind the loss point of the water and “let a speck of boiling water near the swimming pool” near 100 ° C. Instead of "degree Kelvin" for a single temperature, it was simply called "kelvin".

From formula (3) it is clear that by assigning T with such a stable and well-established state of the system as a constant point of fixing the value of 273.16, the value of the constant k can be determined experimentally. Until recently, the most accurate experimental values of Boltzmann's constants were obtained by the limiting gas method.

Іsnuyu and інші methods of otrimanna permanent Boltzmann, basing on vikoristannі laws, to which include the parameter ct.

Tse Stefan-Boltzmann law, zgіdno z yakim povna energy of thermal vipromіnyuvannya E(T) є function of the fourth stage vіd kT.
Rіvnyannya, yak zv'yazuє square swidkіst sound in an ideal gas z 0 2 linear fallow s kT.
Equation for the root-mean-square voltage of noise on an electric support V 2, also linearly lie in kT.

Installations for the implementation of reinsurance of other methods of cashing out kT are called accessories for absolute thermometry and primary thermometry.

In this way, the assigned temperature values are in kelvins, and not in joules, of a lot of intelligence. Mainly those that the coefficient of proportionality itself k between temperature and energy units is not constant. Vіn to deposit according to the accuracy of thermodynamic vimіrіv, dosyazhnoe infection. This kind of behavior is not easy for the first thermometers, which is especially true for the temperature range, which is far from the other point. These records will be based on changes in Boltzmann's value.

The skin change of the practical international temperature scale is the result of scientific achievements of metrological centers in the world. The introduction of a new edition of the temperature scale is intended to calibrate all the means of temperature control.

Temperature is easy!

Temperature

Temperature- the world's average kinetic energy of molecules.
The temperature characterizes the degree of heating of the body.

Attachment for temperature control - thermometer.
Principle dії thermometer:
When the temperature changes, the staleness of the change of any macroscopic parameter (obsyagu, vice, electric support is thin) of the speech in the temperature changes.
For ordinary thermometers, the cost of change is obligatory.
When two media are in contact, energy is transferred from the heated core to a less heated one.
At the process of vimiryuvannya, the temperature of the body and the thermometer arrive at the heat exchanger.

Rіdinnі thermometry

In practice, common thermometers are often used: mercury (in the range from -35 o C to +750 o C) and alcohol (from -80 o C to +70 o C).
They have victorious power to change the volume when the temperature changes.
However, the skin radii have their own specific changes in contraction (expansion) at different temperatures.
As a result, the difference, for example, the reading of mercury and alcohol thermometers, more precisely, will be less at two points (at temperatures of 0 o C and 100 o C).
Tsikh nedolіk_v pozbavleni gas thermometers.

Gas thermometry

The first gas thermometer was created by the French physicist J. Charles.

Perevagi gas thermometer:
- vykoristovuetsya liniyna zalezhnistі zmіni vіmu аbо thе gas vіd temperature, yak іs fair tо all gases
- Accuracy of measurement from 0.003 o C to 0.02 o C
- temperature range from -271 o W to +1027 o W.

Teplova Rivnovaga

When two temperatures are closed, the transfer of internal energy from the heated body to the less heated one is observed, and the temperatures of both bodies are reversed.
There is a thermal equilibrium, for which all macroparameters (compression, pressure, temperature) of both bodies are left unchanged for the inevitable minds.

Thermal equal such a camp is called, with which all macroscopic parameters remain unchanged for a long time.
The mill of the thermal equalization of the system is characterized by temperature: all the bodies of the system, which are found one by one in the thermal equalization, have the same temperature.
It has been established that the thermal balance of the average kinetic energy of the translational movement of the molecules of all gases is the same, tobto.

For rare (ideal) gases, the value

and deposit only depending on the temperature, then

de k - Boltzmann posture

Tsya staleness gives the possibility to develop a new temperature scale, an absolute scale of temperatures, like to be sown in speech, which is victorious for temperature control.

Absolute temperature scale

Introduced by the English physicist W. Kelvin
- no negative temperatures

Absolute temperature unit in CI: [T] = 1K (Kelvin)
The zero temperature of the absolute scale is the absolute zero (0K = -273 o C), the lowest temperature in nature. Nine reached the lowest temperature - 0.0001K.
For the value of 1K dovnyuє 1 o C.

Link of the absolute scale with the Celsius scale

Remember! In formulas, the absolute temperature is indicated by the letter "T", and the temperature beyond the Celsius scale by the letter "t".

After entering the absolute temperature, it is taken new virazi for formulas:

Average kinetic energy of translational movement of molecules

Gas pressure is the main equalization of the MKT

Root-mean-square mobility of molecules

TEMPERATURE TA ЇЇ VIMIR.

EXPERIMENTAL GAS LAWS.

1.Teplova equal. Temperature.

Temperature- Tse physical quantity that characterizes the temperature of the body. If you bring two bodies of different temperatures at the close, those, as you show it, heat the body will be cooled, and heat it less - heat up, then. vіdbuvaєtsya heat exchange- transfer of energy from a larger heated body to a less heated one without the need for work.

The energy that is transferred during heat exchange is called kіlkistyu warmth.

In a deaky hour after the present, the stench of the stench is filled with the same equal heat, tobto. come to the camp thermal efficiency.

Teplova Rivnovaga- such a mill is a system of heat, such as in thermal contact, in which there is no heat exchange, and all macroparameters of heat are immutable, which means that they change.

With this, two parameters - volume and pressure - can be different for different bodies of the system, and the third - the temperature of the difference in thermal equilibrium for all bodies of the system. On the basis of which the temperature is determined.

The physical parameter, which is the same for all systems, which is at the thermal level station, is called temperature system.

For example, the system is composed of two gas vessels. We give them to the dotik. The pressure on the gas in them can be different, and the temperature as a result of heat exchange becomes the same.

2. Temperature control.

To control the temperature of vicorist, there are physical accessories - thermometers, for which the temperature value is judged by the change of any parameter.

To fold the thermometer, you need:

Choose a thermometric speech, the parameters (characteristics) that change when the temperature changes (for example, mercury, alcohol, etc.);

Choose a thermometric value, tobto. the value that changes due to the changing temperature (for example, the height of the mercury column of an alcohol stand, the value of the electrical support is thin);

Check the thermometer, tobto. create a scale for which the temperature is monitored. For which thermometric body is brought into thermal contact with bodies, the temperature of which is constant. For example, with a Celsius temperature scale, the temperature of sumish water and ice at the melting station is taken as 00C, and the temperature of sumish water vapor and water at the boiling station at a pressure of 1 atm. - For 1000s. The position of the stompchik of the rіdini in both vipadkas is assigned, and then we will change between the otrimanimi marks and subdivided into 100 podіlіv.

When the temperature is adjusted, the thermometer is brought into thermal contact with the body, the temperature of which is adjusted, and after that, as the thermal level is restored (show the thermometer to stop changing), the thermometer reading is read.

3. Experimental gas laws.

Parameters that describe the camp of the system of interdependence. Set up a deposit one type of one at once three parameters smoothly, that’s easy enough for three. Look at the process, for yak

a) the amount of speech (chi masa) zavzhdi, tobto. ν=const (m=const);

b) the meaning of one of the powers is fixed, that is. zavzhdi or vice versa, or obsyag, or temperature.

Such processes are called isoprocesses.

1).isothermal process, tobto. a process that occurs with the very same amount of speech at a constant temperature.

Followed by Boyle (1662) and Mariotte (1676).

The scheme of doslid_v is simplified. We look at the vessel with gas, close it with a rumbly piston, on which the vantages are installed, which equalize the pressure on the gas.

Dosvid showing that the pressure on the gas at a constant temperature is constant. Tse means

PV= const

Boyle-Mariotte law.

The volume V of the given quantity of gas at a constant temperature t0 is back proportional to the pressure . .

Graphs of isothermal processes.

The schedule of fallow yoke in terms of volume for a constant temperature is called an isotherm. The higher the temperature, the more the isotherm is displayed on the chart.

2).isobaric process, tobto. the process that comes to mind with the same amount of speech in the fast press.

Reported by Gay-Lussac (1802).

The scheme is simplified. The vessel with gas is closed with a rumbly piston, on which the vantage is installed, which gives pressure to the gas. The vessel with gas heats up.

Having shown that when gas is heated with a constant pressure of yoga, it is subject to such a law: de V 0 - Excess gas at temperature t0 = 00C; V – volume of gas at temperature t0, α v – temperature coefficient of volumetric expansion,

Gay-Lussac's law.

The volume of gas quantity at a constant pressure should be linearly deposited according to temperature.

Graphs of isobaric processes.

The schedule of deposition of gas with temperature at constant pressure is called the isobar.

If you want to extrapolate (continue) the isobars to a low temperature area, all the stench will be at the point, at a normal temperature t0 = - 2730C.

3).Isochoric process, then. the process that is observed by him himself a lot of speech during fasting obsyazy.

Donated by Charles (1802).

The scheme is simplified. The vessel with gas is closed by a rumbly piston, on which vantages are installed, which equalize the pressure on the gas. The vessel heats up.

Dosvid showing that when gas is heated with a constant obligation, the pressure changes according to such a law: de P 0 - Excess gas at temperature t0 = 00C; P – volume of gas at temperature t0, p – temperature coefficient of compression,

Charles' law.

Tisk for the amount of gas in case of constant obligation to deposit linearly at temperature.

The schedule of gas pressure accumulation in case of temperature at a steady rate is called an isochora.

If you want to extrapolyuvate (continue) izochori in a low temperature room, all the stench will be at the point, at a normal temperature t0 = - 2730C.

4. Absolute thermodynamic scale.

The English teachings of Kelvin urged to move the cob of the temperature scale to the left by 2730 and call the point absolute zero temperature. The scale of the new scale is the same as that of the Celsius scale. The new scale is called the Kelvin scale, or the absolute thermodynamic scale. The unit of the world is kelvin.

Zero degrees Celsius is 273 K. The temperature on the Kelvin scale is indicated by the letter T.

T= t0 C+ 273

t0 C= T– 273

The new scale turned out to be useful for recording gas laws.

ce temperature:

temperature TEMPERATURE-and; and.[Lat. temperatura - correct spіvvіdnoshnja, normal camp] 1. Rozmir, which characterizes the thermal mill of yakogos. body, speeches. Dead, middle. Postiyna, kіmnatna. Lipnev, summer t. Night, day T. drive, look. T. melting, boiling, freezing like a l. body. T. near the room. T. for Celsius, for Fahrenheit. T. below zero. Vagannya, change the temperature. Move, change the temperature. Heat up, bring scho-l. up to yakoї-l. temperature. Follow the temperature. 2. The steps of the warmth of the human body, as a show, I will become healthy. Moved, normal, reduced. T. injured. Hit somebody temperature. T. move. T. gallop (Rozg.). A sick man has forty degrees. Measure the temperature with a thermometer, hand, lips. 3. Rozg. The rise of the warmth of the body as a sign of ill health. Have a child, etc. Vin does not have a temperature. Walk with the temperature, practice, practice with the temperature. ◁ Temperature, -i; and. Help me.(3 digits). How is your t.? Temperature, -a, -e. Y-ty change. electric oven mode. T-a curve(schedule of changes in digital temperature readings). T. seam (technical; promіzhok, schіlina mizh parts of yaki-l. constructions, scho to rob the safe expansion of the total parts at different temperature rises). T. leaf(arkush, to avenge the recording of the sick person's temperature). * * * Temperature (from Lat. temperatura - well-balanced, normal state), a physical quantity that characterizes the state of the thermodynamic equilibrium of the system. The temperature of all elements in the insulated system, which is the same for equal parts, is the same. How the system is rebuvay at equal, between and її parts, varying temperatures, heat exchange is required. More high temperature may be the body, which have an average kinetic energy of the molecules (atoms) of the body. Measure the temperature with thermometers on the basis of the fallowness, be it the authority of the body (volume, electrical support, then) in temperature. Theoretically, the temperature is determined on the basis of another cob of thermodynamics, as it is similar to the energy of the body for its entropy. So the temperature is always positive, so it is called the absolute temperature or the temperature beyond the thermodynamic temperature scale (indicated T). Per unit of absolute temperature СІ accepted kelvin (K). Celsius temperature values ( t, °C) due to absolute temperature t = T - 273.15 K (1 °C = 1 °K). * * * TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE (from Lat. temperatura - well-balanced, normal state), a physical quantity that characterizes the state of a thermodynamic level of a system. The temperature of all elements in the insulated system, which is the same for equal parts, is the same. If the system is not in equal conditions, then between the parts, which can vary the temperature, heat exchange takes place ( div. HEAT EXCHANGE). More high temperature may be the body, which have an average kinetic energy of the molecules (atoms) of the body. Measure the temperature with thermometers on the basis of the fallowness, be it the authority of the body (volume, electrical support, then) in temperature. Theoretically, the temperature is determined on the basis of another cob of thermodynamics ( div. ANOTHER THE EAR OF THERMODYNAMICS) as if it is similar to the energy of the body for its entropy. So, the temperature is always positive, it is called the absolute temperature or the temperature beyond the thermodynamic temperature scale ( div. THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE) (indicated by T). per unit of absolute temperature in CI ( div.СІ (system of units)) acceptances of kelvin (K). Celsius temperature values ( t, °С) due to absolute temperature t=T-273.15K (1°C = 1K).

Encyclopedic dictionary. 2009.

Understanding about temperature and about temperature scales

Temperature control

Lecture №7

Non-contact position sensors of mechanisms

The largest widest non-contact position sensors of advanced types: inductive, generator, magnetic reed and photoelectronic. Assigned sensors do not have mechanical contact with a rough object, the position of which is controlled.

Bezkontaktnі position sensors secure high speed code and higher frequency of turning on the mechanism. Pevny nedolіkom tsikh senatorіv є zalezhnіst, їх accuracy in vіd vіd vіd vіd vіgі zhivlennya that temperature. It is possible to use a non-contact logical element, as well as an electrical relay, in the fall, in the form of an external device.

In the circuits of the exact coil of electric drives, contactless sensors can be switched to give a command to move to a reduced wrapping frequency, as well as for the residual spike.

Thermocouple

· Thermometer support

Pirometer

Temperature is the name of the value that characterizes the thermal state of the body. According to the kinetic theory, the temperature is assigned as the world of the kinetic energy of the progressive movement of molecules. Star temperature is a mental statistical value, directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of body molecules.

“... the measure of temperature is not the rush itself, but the chaotic nature of that rush. The chaotic nature of the body signifies the first temperature state, and this idea (as previously broken by Boltzmann), that the first temperature state of the body is not signified by the energy of the movement, but the chaotic nature of the body’s movement and these new understandings in the description of the temperature phenomena are to blame. ..” (P. L. Kapitsa)

In the International System of Units (SI), the thermodynamic temperature enters the warehouse of the seven basic units and is observed at kelvins. Before the storage of similar values \u200b\u200bCІ, which may have a special name, enter the temperature of Celsius, which is measured in degrees Celsius. In practice, it is common to set degrees Celsius through historical reference to important water characteristics - ice melt temperature (0 ° C) and boiling temperature (100 ° C).

t= T-T (7.1),

de T pro \u003d 273.15 Do;

t-temperature in degrees Celsius;

T is the temperature in Kelvin.

The temperature, expressed in degrees Celsius, is denoted by "°C".

Beyond the range of a single physical quantity, the Celsius degree is equal to Kelvin.

The temperature is controlled for the help of sobіv vymiryuvan, scho vikoristovuyut different thermometric powers of the rivers, gases and solid bodies. Before such zabіv vimіrіv vіdnosyasya:

Thermometry expansion;

Thermometry manometric;

Thermometer support with logometers and bridges;

Thermocouple with millivoltmeters or potentiometers;

Pyrometry viprominyuvannya.

The temperature is measured by contact (for an additional thermometer support, manometric thermometers and thermoelectric thermometers) and non-contact (for an additional pyrometer) methods.

Memory slide:

The highest accuracy of temperature control is achieved with contact methods of control;

The non-contact method is used to control high temperatures, but cannot be controlled by contact methods and does not require high accuracy.

Vimiryuvalna temperature system є suupnistyu thermometric changeover (sensor) and secondary vimіryuvalnoy prilad.

Thermometric changeover - temperature changeover, assignments for signal generation and changeover information in the form, useful for the transfer of a distant changeover, processing or saving, but not for the immediate acceptance of caution.

Before thermometric conversions, add:

thermometer support;

Thermoelectric thermometry (thermocouple);

Telescope radiation pyrometer.

Table 1

Thermometric power	I will add	Mezhі trivalogo zastosuvannya, 0C
Lower	Upper
Thermal expansion	Rіdkіsnі glass of thermometry	-190
Change the vise	Manometric thermometry	-160
Change of electric support	Electrical thermometry support	-200
Napіvprovіdnikovі thermometry support	-90
Thermoelectric effects	Thermoelectric thermometry (thermocouple) standardized	-50
Thermoelectric thermometers (thermocouples) special
Teplove viprominyuvannya	Optical pyrometry
Radiation pyrometry
Photoelectric pyrometry
Colors of pyrometry

The second vimiryuvalny prilad - zasіb vimiryuvan, scho converting the external signal of the thermometric converting the numerical value.

As a secondary vimiryuvalnі attach vikoristovuyut ratiometers, bridges, millivoltmeters, automatic potentiometers.

Methods and technical methods of temperature control

1. Thermometer expansion and thermometer manometric

Rіdkіsnі glass of thermometry.

The oldest extensions for temperature control - glass of ordinary thermometers - vicorist thermometric power of thermal expansion of tel. The range of thermometers is based on the specificity of the coefficients of thermal expansion of the thermometric speech shell, in which it is found (thermometrically thicker or more similar to quartz).

A rare thermometer is folded from a glass balloon, a capillary tube. The thermometric mouth fills the balloon and often capillary tube. The free space at the capillary tube is filled with an inert gas, or it can be under vacuum. A part of the capillary tube, which protrudes beyond the upper bottom of the scale, serves to intimidate the thermometer about escaping during overheating.

Like a thermometric speech, it is most likely to zastosovuyut chemically pure mercury. Vaughn does not get rid of errors and becomes rare in a wide range of temperatures. The crimson of mercury, like a thermometric speech in glassy thermometers, stagnates other things, more importantly, an organic journey. For example: methyl and ethyl alcohol, gas, pentane, toluene, gallium, amalgam waist.

The main advantages of glassy standard thermometers are the ease of installation and the high accuracy of navit for serial production thermometers. You can see up to a few glassy thermometers: the visibility of the scale is bad (so you can’t stop the special optics) and the impossibility of automatic recording of the reading, transmission of the reading for repair.

The glass of the native thermometers may be even more widespread and the following main differences will be released:

1. technical mercury, with an enclosed scale, with a lower part, which zanuryuetsya at the middle of the middle, straight and apex;

2. laboratory mercury, palichny or with an attached scale, zanuryuvani at the middle of the heart to a temperature mark, which is wound, straight, of a small ovnіshny diameter;

3. standard thermometry (not mercury); 4. improved accuracy and bright mercury thermometry;

5. electrocontact mercury thermometers with an embedded scale, with contacts soldered into the capillary tube for opening (or fading) an electric lance with a mercury bar;

6. special thermometry, including maximum (medical and other), minimum, meteorological and other indications.

Manometric thermometry

The difference of manometric thermometers is grounded on the victorious fallow of speech at constant temperature. A closed-loop system of a manometric thermometer is composed of a sensitive element that captures the temperature of the medium, which is controlled - a metal thermocylinder, a working element of a pressure gauge that controls the pressure in the system, a long-term successful metal capillary. When the temperature of the vimiruvannye medium is changed, the pressure in the system changes, due to which the sensitive element moves the arrow or the pen behind the pressure gauge scale, which grades in degrees of temperature.

Manometric thermometry is divided into three main types:

1. native, in which the entire vimiruval system (thermobalon, pressure gauge and a good capillary) is filled with native;

2. condensation, in some thermal bulbs, the fillings are often filled with a low boiling temperature and often - with a lot of vapors, and a good capillary and a pressure gauge - with a lot of pairs of a redine or, more often, with a special transmission mother;

3. gas, in which the entire vimiruvalna system is filled with an inert gas.

The advantages of manometric thermometers are the relative simplicity of design and stability, the possibility of remote temperature control and the possibility of automatic recording of readings. Up to a few manometric thermometers can be seen: apparently low accuracy of measurements (class accuracy 1.6; 2.5; 4.0 and more like 1.0); small distance transmission distance (no more than 60 meters) and difficult to repair when depressurizing the vimiruvalnoy system.

Manometric thermometers do not have a great stasis at thermal power stations. In industrial heat and power engineering, stinks are more frequent, especially in depressions, if it is not possible to beat the electric method and remote temperature control beyond the minds of vibuhoness or fire safety.

2. Thermoelectric thermometry

To control the temperature in the metallurgy of the largest expansion, thermoelectric thermometers were used, which work in the temperature range from -200 to +2500 0C and more. The Danish type of attachment characterizes the high accuracy and reliability, the possibility of winning in automatic control systems and the regulation of the parameter, which signifies the progress of the technological process in metallurgical units.

The essence of the thermoelectric method helps to win the EPC from the conductor, the point of which can vary the temperature. In order to reduce the EPC, її equalize with the EPC of the other conductor, which establishes the thermoelectric couple AB with the first one, in the lancet, for example, a stream will flow.

Thermo-EPC tsієї bet to lay only in temperature t 1 and t 2 and not to lay in vіd rozmіrіv thermoelectrodes (dovzhin, diameter), values of thermal conductivity of the pet electrical support.

To increase the sensitivity of the thermoelectric method of changing the temperature in a series of fluctuations, stop the thermopile: a few consecutively switched on thermocouples, operating ends of which are at a temperature of t 2 and at a constant and constant temperature of t 1.

Powering thermoelectric thermometers

The thermoelectric thermometer (TT) is a temperature-controlled transducer, a sensitive element of some kind of (thermocouple) expansion at special fittings, which ensures the protection of thermoelectrodes from mechanical failures and the injection of a temperature-controlled medium. The armature includes a holster and a head, in the middle of which there are contact attachments with clamps for connecting thermoelectrodes with wires, which go from the winding attachment to the thermometer. Thermoelectrodes for all long-term insulation one type of one and one type of fittings with ceramic tubes.

Like thermoelectrodes vikoristovuєtsya drіt with a diameter of 0.5 mm (noble metal) and up to 3 mm (non-noble metal). Solder on the working end of the thermocouple to be welded, soldered or twisted. The remaining method is vicorated for tungsten-rhenium and tungsten-molybdenum thermocouples.

Standard and non-standard thermoelectric thermometers

To win in metallurgy, the most widely used are TTs with standard graduations: platinum-rhodium-platinum (TPP), platinum-rhodium-platinum-rhodium (TPR), chromel-aluminum (TXA), chromel-crraplin (THK), tungsten-rhenium-tungsten-rhenium (TVR). A number of types of vicorist also have TT with non-standard graduations: copper-constantan, tungsten-molybdenum (TVR) and in.

In the minds of a trival operation at high temperatures and an aggressive influx of mediums, the instability of the graduation characteristics is manifested, as there are few reasons for this: contamination of materials in thermoelectrodes by houses from protective covers, ceramic atmosphere insulators and that; evaporation of one of the components of the alloy; mutual diffusion through the junction. The value of ventilation can be significant and sharply increase with increasing temperature and operational stability. The appointment of the environment must be checked in terms of the accuracy of temperature control in virobnicheskih minds.

Re-verification of technical specifications

The CT verification is carried out to the temperature degree of the thermo-EPC and the degree of the removed graduation from the standard values.

Graduation is carried out by two methods: for constant points or for zviryannya.

Graduation for fixed (reference) points is the most precise and stable for clear thermocouples. Check the thermocouple by placing it near the crucible with high-purity metal, installed in the furnace, and register the maidanchik on the curve of changing the thermo-EPC in the world, or lowering the temperature of the metal. Denmark maydanchik shows the temperature of melting or crystallization of metal, and it is better to graduate according to the point of crystallization. As a benchmark, they cast vicorist gold, palladium, platinum and other.

The calibration method is used to calibrate light thermocouples of a different category and technical CTs. Vіn polagaє in bezperednym vіmіrі thermo-ERS calibrated thermocouple at constant temperature vіlnyh kіntsіv t 0 =0 0C and different temperatures t 2 of the working junction, and the rest is assigned for the help of a single thermometer. Vibration of thermo- EPC is carried out with the help of a portable potentiometer with an accuracy of measurement (for example) not higher than 0.1 mV. The examination is carried out after 10 quills of a vitrimka for a given temperature.

Vymiryuvannya thermo-EPC compensatory route

Using a thermo-EPC thermocouple with a straight path, for the strength of the stream in the lance of a permanent support, for the help of a millivoltmeter, you can easily fix it. However, this method may have a number of shortcomings, which create additional errors, which in the majority of cases do not allow the highest accuracy of the world to be taken into account.

In vimiryuvalnіy tekhnіtsі krim direct methods vіmіryuvannі vіdomі compensatіynі і аbо methodi otstavlennja (pіvnyannіа) nevіdomoї vіdomoї vіdomoї. Compensation methods allow you to conduct a more accurate calculation, even if it is not so simple as a direct calculation.

The main pass of the compensation vimyryvannya thermo -irs, Porivnano is straight, behind the pre-military milovoltmeter, Pole in that, at the time of the vimyryvannya struz at Lantsyug thermopari Dorivnyu, the ribs are not the soroto of the oregoto. the need and turbulence about the influx of the temperature of the navkolishny middle on the outer lance are not needed.

Automatic potentiometer

Automatic potentiometers serve to compensate for thermo-EMF control without manual manipulations, power to non-automatic potentiometers. In the rest of the manual manipulations after standardization, the struma is brought to the point of necessity to move the rheochord motors, the galvanometer needle will not reset to zero. When tsimu ruh dviguna carried out in a straight line.

The vimiruvalna scheme of an automatic potentiometer in principle does not fit into the scheme of an automatic potentiometer.

The circuit has three voltages (battery B, normal element NOT that thermocouple T) and three lances. Lance of the battery of chimes at the sight of the bridge: in the diagonal BD the life is included, and in the diagonal CA - the lung of the thermocouple. The lance of the normal element is connected to the shoulder of the CD of the compensatory lance. For the help of switching P into the thermocouple line or the line of the normal element, an electronic switch EU is switched on (including a vibration switch). When the lance of the normal element is turned on, a shunting opir R1 is introduced, parallel to the electronic switch, so that in this case the magnitude of the unbalance voltage becomes more rich, lower when the lance of the thermocouple is turned on.

Electronic automatic potentiometers are sometimes called accessories with uninterrupted balancing, so how to counter imbalance is carried out here with a frequency of 50 Hz.

3. Electrical thermometry support

In metallurgical practice, for the control of temperatures up to 6500C, a thermometer support (TS) is installed, the principle of such a support is grounded on the vikoristan fallow of the electric support of speech in the form of temperature. Knowing tsyu zalezhnist, shdo change the value of the thermometer support to judge the temperature of the middle, in the form of faults. The last parameter I will add is an electrical value, which can be measured with high accuracy (up to 0.020С), transferred to a large distance and without middle vikoristan in systems of automatic control of that regulation.

As materials for the preparation of sensitive elements of the TK, vicarious are pure metals: platinum, copper, nickel, and brass.

View of the function R = f(t) to be deposited according to the nature of the material and may be recorded as linear alignment R \u003d R 0 (1 + at), where a is the temperature coefficient of the support, t is the temperature.

Opіr napіvprovіdnіkіv zі zbіlshennym temperature sharply zmenshuєtsya, so stink mаyutnіy temperаtієєєnt prіkіtієnі prіkіtієnі prіkіtієnі pіvіtsієnt іn practiсal order more, nizhі і mаlіv. Napіvprovіdnikovі thermometry support (TSPP) is very important to be used for surviving low temperatures.

Advantages of TSPP are small dimensions, low inertia, high coefficient. However, the stench mayut and the essence of the shortcomings:

1) non-linear nature of the fallow of the support in the temperature;

2) the difference between the workability of the warehouse and the grading characteristics, which include the interchangeability of other technical specifications of this type. It is necessary to bring to the release of the TSPP with individual graduations.

Type and design TK

For the sake of perfection of different tasks, technical specifications are divided into standard, smart and professional workers, as they are divided into laboratory and technical ones.

Technical specifications in the fallage according to the designation and design are divided into: zanuryuvani, surface and room; protection and not protection from the aggressive medium; stationary and portable; thermometers of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd class of accuracy, etc. The thermometer is folded from a sensitive element, rolled in a steel hood, on which a fitting is welded. Lead, reinforced with porcelain namists, tie up the folds of a sensitive element with a block of glue, which is found in the body of the head. At the top the head is closed with a cap, at the bottom there is a stuffing box, through which the assembly cable is led through. When the temperature of the middles and the high grip decreases, a special protection (mounting) sleeve is installed on the cover of the TZ.

Sensitive element of the TS of the chimes with a metal thin rod with a non-inductive frame or frameless winding. Significantly, in metallurgical practice, the use of thermometer support (TSPP) is used to control the temperature from -90 to +180 0С. Їx stop at thermal relays, low-temperature regulators, which ensure high-current stabilization of sensitive elements in gas analyzers, chromatographs, housings in pyrometers, electric thermoelectric installations for express analysis of metal warehouses.

What is the temperature?

What is the temperature? (Vyznachennya that explanation is possible)

Sapienti sat

Type of lat. Temperatura - normal stun
Temperature is a physical quantity that characterizes the average kinetic energy of the particles of a macroscopic system, as it is at the station of thermodynamic equilibrium. In an equally important station, the temperature may be the same for all macroscopic parts of the system.
To control the temperature, a certain thermodynamic parameter of the thermometric speech is selected. The change of this parameter will unambiguously appear due to the change in temperature.

Bulat 1

the value of the movement of molecules and even more so, that it can be revealed in the range of the infra-red spectrum of the development of the electromagnetic wheeze.
Therefore, the temperature at an altitude of 1000 km from the Earth can be thousands of degrees Celsius, but there it is not observed through the discharge of the atmosphere.

The energy of chaotic microscopic turmoil, which falls one step of freedom.
The essence of ciomu is that the chaotic movement is expanding every year with all the "steps of freedom", so, with all the possible ways of the movement. For example, if a molecule can collapse in three directions and spin in three directions, then the energy will be evenly divided into all six directions.
If a molecule can sway like a spring, then the energy will penetrate through and through. As a molecule can emit photons, chaos penetrates and there - the molecule becomes randomly releasing photons.
Zreshtoy, if everything settles down, all possible forms of movement appear behind the same way - they are called "thermodynamic equal". The axis at this station, how much energy falls on one step (and the same amount of energy falls on the skin) and is called "temperature". Just to convert from joules to degrees, it is necessary to add to Boltzmann's post.
Like two speeches, the molecules of which may have a different number of degrees of freedom, provide the same amount of energy, then the speech, which has a greater degree of freedom, will be colder. Heat flowing from hot to cold, to that, there, there are more steps of freedom, there is direct energy.

Anatoly khapilin

This is a mental call for a particular stage of the awakening of the plasma-akash around the planet, where the molecules of structures in the space of awakening are breaking down in their own circle. For example, fire, as an element of ethereal matter, more energetic, lower physical elements, and also, wines locally awakens plasma, which permeates everything and everything, and so the space itself in the structure, for example, is guilty of burning, and that begins to ruin 'languages of the structure. The weaker the rest, the more the structure collapses. І chim vyshchiy stupіn zbudzhennya zbudzhennya plazma at gorіnі, for example, gas, tim won energy. Reporter - at the dzhereli.

Yevgen dubaylo

Temperature is a physical quantity that characterizes the average kinetic energy of the particles of a macroscopic system, as it is at the station of thermodynamic equilibrium.
temperature-world energy