What simple carbohydrate is the monomer for starch, glycogen, cellulose? Characteristics of carbohydrates and proteins and their role in clitiny What a simple carbohydrate to serve
Organoids of ruhu are characteristic of Sarcodidae? Name the attachments, from which one-client creature endure unfriendly minds. How many of the simplest did the vapnyaks deposit on the sea day?
. Chemical elements that enter the warehouse of carbon 21. Number of molecules in monosaccharides 22. Number of monomers in polysaccharides 23. Glucose, fructose,galactose, ribose and deoxyribose are added to the speech type 24. Monomer polysaccharides 25. Starch, chitin, cellulose, glycogen are added to the speech group 26. Carbon storage in roslin 27. Storage carbon in creatures 28. Structural carbon in roslin3 кислот складаються молекули 31. Найенергоємніша органічна поживна речовина 32. Кількість енергії, що виділяється при розпаді білків 33. Кількість енергії, що виділяється при розпаді жирів 34. Кількість енергії, що виділяється при розпаді вуглеців 35. Замість однієї з жирних кислот фосфорна кислота бере участь in the molded molecules 36. Phospholipid enters the warehouse 37. The monomer of proteins є 38. The number of species of amino acids in the warehouse of proteins is present 39. Proteins are catalysts 40. The diversity of protein molecules 41. There are the most speeches in clitins 43. According to the type of speeches, enzymes are 44. Monomer of nucleic acids 45. DNA nucleotides can be combined in one type of one only 46. Global speech Nucleotides of DNA and RNA 47. Carbohydrate in DNA Nucleotides 48. Carbohydrate in Nucleotides of RNA 49 DNA is characterized by a nitrogen base 50. Only RNA is characterized by a nitrogen base 51. acid 52. Single-lancet Nucleic acid 53. Type of chemical link between nucleotides in one DNA lance 54. Type of chemical link between DNA lances 55. Suspended water link in DNA, vinica mizh 56. Complementary to adenine 57. Complementary to guanine 59. Chromium. types of RNA are known 60. RNA is found in clitins 61. The role of the ATP molecule 62. The nitrogen base in the ATP molecule 63. The type of ATP carbohydrate
Molecular rіven" Grade 91. What is the name of organic speech, in the molecules of which there are atoms C, O, H, which viconizes the non-Greek function of life?
A-nucleic acid B-protein
B-carbohydrate G-ATP
2. How do carbohydrates make up polymers?
A-monosaccharides B-disaccharides B-polysaccharides
3. To the group of monosaccharides add:
A-glucose B-sucrose B-cellulose
4. What are carbohydrates indistinct in water?
A-glucose, fructose B-starch B-ribose, deoxyribose
5. Molecules of fats are dissolved:
A-3 glycerin, higher carboxylic acids B-3 glucose
B-z amino acids, water G-z ethyl alcohol, higher carboxylic acids
6. Fats win the client's function:
A-transport B-energy
B-catalytic G-information
7. How long can you see lipids?
A-hydrophobic B-hydrophobic
8. What is the meaning of fat in creatures?
A-structure of membranes B-thermoregulation
B-dzherelo energy D-dzherelo drive D-everything is rehabilitated
9. Monomers of proteins:
A-nucleotides and B-amino acids C-glucose G-fat
10. The most important organic speech, which can be included in the warehouse of clitins of all kingdoms of living nature, which may have the first linear configuration, is introduced:
A-up to polysaccharides B-up to lipids
B-to ATP G-to polypeptides
2. Write the functions of the whites, point the butts.
3. Task: According to the DNA lance AATGCGATHGCTTAGTTTAGG, it is necessary to obtain a complementary lance, and then determine the length of the DNA
1. Give a specific term) hydrophilic speech) polymer c) reduplication
2. How to recycle speech with heteropolymers: a) insulin b) starch c) RNA
3. Pick up the application from the list C, Zn, O, N, H. Explain your choice.
4. To establish the capacity between speech and speech functions: Functions: a) proteins 1. rukhova b) carbohydrates 2. supply of food. speech 3. transport 4. regulatory
5. Given one lancet DNA AAC-HCT-TAG-TGG. Try a complementary other language.6. Choose the correct one: 1) Protein monomer єа) nucleotide b) amino acids) glucose d) glycerol 2) Starch monomer єа) nucleotide b) amino acids) glucose d) glycerol 3) Proteins that regulate blood sugar and directly chemical reactions in clitin a) hormones b) enzymes c) vitamins; d) proteins
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carbohydrates, or saccharides,- Organic speech from the head formula C n (H 2 O) m. The largest number of simple carbohydrates is the number of water molecules and the number of carbon atoms. That's why speeches were called carbohydrates.
In animal clitin, carbohydrates are changed in kіlkostakh, yakі shift 1-2, usually 5%. The biggest riches in carbohydrates are growing clitins, in some cases they reach 90% of dry mass (potato tubers, nasinnya thinly).
Carbohydrates are simple and foldable. Sorry in carbohydrates name monosaccharides. The fallow, in terms of the number of carbon atoms in the monosaccharide molecule, is called trioses - 3 atoms, tetroses - 4, pentoses - 5 and hexoses - 6 carbon atoms. From six-carbon monosaccharides - hexoses - the most important are glucose, fructose and galactose (Fig. 3.16). Glucose is found in the blood and in the amount of 0.08–0.12%. Pentosy - ribose and deoxyribose - enter the warehouse of nucleic acids and ATP.
Rice. 3.16. Monosaccharides - hexose
Rice. 3.17. Polysaccharides: A – degreased polymer; B - linear polymer (cellulose)
As in one molecule two monosaccharides are combined, this is called disaccharide. To disaccharides one can see sucrose tsukor - sucrose, which is taken from the outline of either sukrovy beetroot and is composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule, and milk tsukor - lactose, solutions of glucose and galactose molecules.
Folding in carbohydrates, if more than two are absorbed by monosaccharides, they are called polysaccharides(Figure 3.17). The monomers of such polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose and glucose. Polysaccharides, as a rule, are diluted polymers (Fig. 3.17, A).
Carbohydrates have a number of basic functions - plastic (budive), signal and energy. For example, cellulose strengthens the walls of growing cells, and the folding polysaccharide chitin is the main structural component of the arthropod skeleton. Budіvelnu funktsіyu khіtin vykonuє i fungi, kіtinnі kіtinnі walls. No less important is the signaling function of carbohydrates. Small oligosaccharides, which include 20-30 monomeric lanoks, enter to the warehouse of superficial and intracellular receptors. The very stench, the order of the antigens of the clitin surface indicates the belonging of the clitin to the singing tissue. Krym, in the carbohydrate parts of the receptors, the function of the molecular "recognition" and the changes in the space configuration of the protein component of the receptor, which triggers the biochemical transformation of speech in the clitin (Div. Fig. 3.11), are changed.
Also, carbohydrates play the role of the main energy source in clitin. In the oxidation process, 1 g of carbohydrates produces 17.6 kJ of energy. In this rank, starch in roslin and glycogen in creatures, adding to clitins, is an energy reserve.
Reference points
The largest amount of carbohydrates is found in the growing plants.
Monosaccharides are the main source of energy for most living organisms.
Carbohydrates enter up to the storage of receptors in clitin and surface antigens, for their informational and communicative functions.
Cellulose polysaccharide enters the warehouse of cell walls of prokaryotes and roslin.
Chitin makes up the perfect skeleton of arthropods and clitinous shells of fungi.
1. What chemical half are called carbohydrates?
2. Recycle tipi clitin, the most rich in carbohydrates.
3. Describe the monosaccharides and give examples.
4. What are disaccharides? Bring examples.
5. What are the characteristics of polysaccharides?
6. What is the simplest carbohydrate as a monomer for starch, glycogen, cellulose?
7. Examine and expand the functions of carbohydrates.
Zhiri, or lipids(Type Greek. lipos- fat), are a half of high-molecular fatty acids and triatomic alcohol glycerin. Fats do not separate from the water, the stench is hydrophobic (like Greek. hydro- that water phobos- Fear). In klinah krіm zhiriv є іnshі folded hydrophobic fat-like speech, titles lipids. Before them, phospholipids, sterols and in.
Also important is the role of fats and rozchinniki in hydrophobic organic conditions, for example, vitamins A, D, E, which are necessary for normal biochemical changes in organisms.
Fat and lipoidi vikonuyut and budіvelnu function. Thus, phospholipids make up cellular membranes. Apply phospholipids to reach the warehouse of membranes of various structures, present baby 3.18. Report and read about phospholipids in division 5.
Zavdyaks of poor heat conductivity building fat vikonuvat function of the heat-insulating unit. In some creatures (seals, whales), veins are found in the lower fatty tissue, yak, for example, in whales, making the ball of the zavtovka up to 1 m.
Another important function of fats is energy. During the splitting of 1 g of fats to CO 2 and H 2 O, a large amount of energy is produced - 38.9 kJ.
Cholesterol (Fig. 3.19) is converted to sterols - fat-like speech, lipids of natural origin. Vіn practi- cally vanishes in all tissues of the body, enters the warehouse of biological membranes, strengthening and stabilizing its structure. Damage to the exchange of cholesterol is the basis of some pathological states (like the Greek. patos- sickness). For example, in atherosclerosis, veins appear on the walls of blood vessels, making it difficult or altering blood flow.
Rice. 3.18. Budov of various phospholipids
Krіm tsgogo, close to the structure of the speech, determine the function of state hormones and hormones of measles supra-nervous deposits, which regulate carbohydrate and mineral metabolism. The establishment of certain lipoids before the synthesis of hormones in measles supra-nural ulcers. Otzhe, this speech is powerful and the function of regulation of exchange processes.
The vitality of the cells is of great importance and the body plays such folding parts, like glycolipids, that are formed from carbohydrates and lipids. Particularly rich in the storage of brain tissue and nerve fibers. Immediately, it is necessary to name lipoproteins, which are complex compounds of various proteins with fats.
In human cells and creatures, non-essential fatty acids are synthesized such regulatory speech as prostaglandins. The stench may have a wide range of biological activity: regulate the contraction of the muscles of the internal organs, improve the tone of the vessels, regulate the functions of various respiratory organs.
Rice. 3.19. Cholesterol is a binding component of biological membranes
Reference points
Fats and lipids are hydrophobic, so they do not differ in water.
Phospholipids are the basis of biological membranes.
As fat growers ensure the penetration of fat-dissolving speeches into the body, for example, vitamins D, E, A.
Request for repetition
1. What is fat?
2. Describe chemical warehouse fat and phospholipids.
3. What are the functions of removing fat and lipids? By what physical powers is the budding function of phospholipids mindful?
4. Which fabrics and fabrics have the highest amount of fats? How many cells synthesize and accumulate a large amount of fat?
5. In what role do fats play a regulatory role?
6. What is cholesterol? What is the meaning of yoga in a clitin and an organism?
Request for discussion
1. What is the specificity of activity of biological catalysts - enzymes? How do you show your role as water in robotic enzymes?
2. What is the mechanism of direceptors on the clitin surface? Why do you see the biological significance of the injection of various speeches on the clitina through receptors, and not directly on the process of exchange of speeches?
3. How do monosaccharides combine in polymers? What chemical bonds determine the expanse of polysaccharide configuration?
4. Which monosaccharides enter into the warehouse of di- and polysaccharides?
5. What is the biological significance of lipids? Describe the role of cholesterol in cellular membranes and in organisms.
Until the middle of the nineteenth century. it was established that the building before decay is signified by the material that is found in the clitin core. At 1869 p. F. Misher, investigating the chemical composition of the nuclei of putrid cleats in place, having seen their sour speech, named them nucleic. Tsya pod_ya raztsіnyuєtsya contagiously like the release of nucleic acids.
The term "nucleic acid" itself was introduced in 1889. German biochemist A. Kessel, who described the hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Having established the opinions, they are made up of excess zucru (pentose), phosphoric acid, and one of several heterocyclic nitrogenous bases, which lie up to purines or pyrimidine(Figure 3.20).
The value of nucleic acids is great. The peculiarities of their chemical life and ensure the possibility of saving, transferring and transferring information about the structure of protein molecules, which are synthesized in the skin tissue at the first stage of individual development.
The stability of nucleic acids is the most important factor in the normal life of cells and whole organisms. Often, changes in nucleic acids (mutations) cause changes in the structure of clitin or the activity of physiological processes in them, adding such a rank to the life of clitin, tissues and organisms. On the other hand, the very change in the structure of DNA is the basis of evolutionary transformations.
The structure of nucleic acids was first established by the American biochemist J. Watson and the English physicist F. Crick (1953). Її Vivchennia may be extremely important for the decline of a sign in organisms and regularities in the functioning of other clitin and cellular systems - tissues and organs.
Rice. 3.20. Budov nucleotide and yoga components
There are two different types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
3.2.4.1. DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA is the genetic material of most organisms. In prokaryotic clitins, apart from the main chromosomal DNA, posahromosomal DNA is often spliced. plasmid. In eukaryotic clitins, the main mass of DNA is scattered in the clitin nucleus, bound to various proteins in the chromosomes, and is also located in other organelles - mitochondria and plastids.
DNA is a whole, irregular biological polymer, which, as a rule, is made up of two polynucleotide lances, joined one by one. Monomers, which form the skin from lances of DNA, are foldable organic layers. nucleotides. One of the most important components of nucleotides are nitrogenous bases.
The most important deletion to the stock of DNA nucleotides includes the nitrogenous bases thymine (T) and cytosine (C) - similar to pyrimidine, as well as adenine (A) and guanine (G), which are considered to be similar to purines. In addition, nucleotides include a pentaatomic tsukor (pentose) - deoxyribose and an excess of phosphoric acid. On the little 3.20, it is shown as a component of the nucleotide z'ednani one by one. Take care that carbon atoms in deoxyribose are numbered like 1", 2", 3", 4" and 5".
DNA is a polymer with a large molecular mass: one molecule can contain 10 8 or more nucleotides. In the skin polynucleotide lance, the nucleotides link between each other with the attachment of etheric links between deoxyribose of one and an excess of phosphoric acid and another nucleotide (Fig. 3.21). At the first nucleotide of the molecule, at the first nucleotide, an excess of phosphoric acid is left in the form of the ester linkage. On the last, "rear" end of the molecule, not embedded in the established ether linkage, there is a 3"-carbon atom of deoxyribose - 3"-end of the polynucleotide lance. A similar principle underlies the existence of RNA .
Two polynucleotide lances unite into a single molecule for additional water bonds, which link between nitrogenous bases, which enter the nucleotide warehouse and make different lances. The number of such links between different nitrogenous bases is not the same, and lastly, the nitrogenous base A of one lance of the polynucleotide is connected by two water links from the T third lance, and G - by three water links from the nitrogen base of the C proliferant lance. Such a building up to the vibratory formation of nucleotides, after which they are formed bet A-T that G-C, called complementarity(Figure 3.22). As you can see the sequence of nucleotides in one lancet (for example, T-C-A-T-G), then according to the principle of complementarity, it is easy to determine the sequence of the protile lancet (A-G-T-A-C).
The sequence of joining nucleotides in one lance is the same as in the other lance, so that it forms one DNA molecule, it is different straightening, or it is antiparallel. Blood-fastate grouping of nucleotides is located in the name, and complementary binding of nucleotides is in the middle. The lancets are twisted one on top of one, and also on a slightly twisted axis, they make right-handed spirals of 10 pairs of bases at the skin turn - the subwinding spiral (Fig. 3.23).
Rice. 3.21. Scheme of polynucleotide lances - DNA and RNA molecules.
Rice. 3.22. Scheme of the complementary half of the polynucleotide lances in the DNA molecule
When z'ednanny with singing proteins - histones- The steps of the spiralization of the molecule move. The molecule is sweating and short, vibrating the nucleosomal thread, which is essentially a deoxynucleoprotein (Fig. 3.24). Nadal steps of spiralization growth: nucleosomal thread, twisting around its axis, forming a chromatin fibril (Fig. 3.25). The rest of the farther spiralization establishes a loopy structure, the molecule shortens and sweats even more (Fig. 3.26). Nareshti, the spiralization reaches the maximum, vinikating the spiral of the greater equal - the superspiral. In this case, the DNA molecule, tied with different proteins, becomes littered with a light microscope, like a well-worn body, which is good to farbow. chromosome(Div. Fig. 3.26).
Rice. 3.23. Volumetric model of the underwire DNA helix (the first line of the helix). Adcried by J. Watson and F. Crick (1953)
A chromosome can be called an independent nuclear body of a twisted form, which can shoulders that first constriction - centrifuge. Prior to the division in the S-period of the mitotic cycle, the chromosome is made up of one DNA molecule chromatid(single chromatid chromosome), and after reduplication - from two chromatids (double chromatid chromosome), bound in the region of the center. It is important to note that it is possible to detect a chromosome in the superspiralization stage of DNA only in the metaphase of mitosis or under meiosis. In the other period of the life cycle of the cell, the chromosomal material - the DNA molecules are recycled at the stage of lesser spiralization, despiralization, untwisting. The divergences of the DNA molecule (chromosomes), mostly despiralized through their small size, can be seen only at the maximum magnification of the electron microscope.
Rice. 3.24. Budov nucleosomal thread (another rib of spiralization): A - scheme; B - electron micrograph
Rice. 3.25. Scheme of the life of the chromatin fibril (the third line of spinalization)
The record of genetic information in a DNA molecule is the genetic code. All the versatility of life is summed up by the versatility of protein molecules, which are found in clitins, tissues and organisms of various biological functions. The structure of proteins is determined by the set and order of amino acid dispersal in polypeptide lances. The very sequence of amino acids of peptides is encrypted in DNA molecules for help genetic code. During the transcription process, the genetic code from DNA codons is translated into a sequence of codons in messenger RNA (Fig. 3.27).
Have 1954 p. R. Gamow, having made an assumption that the coding of information in DNA molecules can be carried out by the number of nucleotides. To encrypt twenty different amino acids, a sufficient number of nucleotides can provide more than a triplet code, in which the skin amino acid is encrypted by triple coding one by one in a polynucleotide lance with nucleotides. In this case, the combination of four nucleotides creates 64 triplets (4 3 = 64).
Rice. 3.26. Scheme of rіvnіv spіralіzії chromosomal material (DNA)
One of the most important steps in the development of the function of nucleic acids was the deciphering of the method of recording information in DNA and the principle of transferring it to the protein structure, in order to formulate the genetic code. In 1961 F. Crick and S. Brenner proved that the skin amino acids in the protein contain a triplet of nucleotides. The new genetic code, which consists of 64 codons, was introduced in 1966 to the robots of M. Nirenberg, G. Korani and S. Ochoa.
The genetic code is the principle of recording decay information, which means that genetic information about the structure of proteins is placed in DNA in the sequence of nucleotides in one of the lances. Tsey lanzyug otrimav name codogenic, a complementary nth lance of nucleotides matrix. On the matrix lance, following the principle of complementarity, RNA molecules are synthesized (Fig. 3.28).
It turned out that out of 64 possible triplets of DNA, 61 triplet codes for different amino acids, and 3, which were missing, took away the name headless or nonsense triplets. The stench does not encrypt amino acids and encode the function of branch signs (stop triplets) at the hour of reading the recessionary information. Before them one can see triplets ATT, ACT, ATC. Krym tsgogo, іsnuє methionіnovy codon TAC, which plays the role of th starting triplet, z kakogo pochinaєtsya be-any gene. In the course of additional processing of the protein molecule, the first amino acid methionine is removed from the polypeptide lance.
Rice. 3.27. Table of the genetic code in iRNA triplets
Power of the genetic code. The Crimea is a mystery, the genetic code of a greater power. Yogo has been revealed in the process of cultivating the powers of the genetic code specificity: skin triplet building code only one single amino acid. Attaching respect is obvious to the code, that in someone who has a lot of amino acids, they are encrypted in multiple triplets (div. table of the genetic code). The power of the triplet code is called virogenity, Even more importantly, a change in the structure of the DNA molecule by the type of substitution of one nucleotide in a polynucleotide lance may not change the sensory triplet. A new day, which is named in such a rank, three nucleotides signify the same amino acid.
Rice. 3.28. The sequence of nucleotides in iRNA repeats the sequence of nucleotides in the codogenic lance
The identity of the code in different species of living organisms has been established. Taka universality the genetic code to certify about the unity of the journey of all the various living forms of the Earth, which vindicated the process of biological evolution.
Insignificant differences in the genetic code were revealed in the DNA of mitochondria of some species. Don't supersede the statement about the universality of the code, but rather testify to the savagery of the singing divergentness (divergence) of the early evolution in the early stages of life. Deciphering the DNA code of mitochondria from different species of living organisms showed that in all types of mitochondrial DNA there is a significant feature: the ACT triplet is read as ACC, and therefore the nonsense stripe of veins is transformed into the cipher of amino acids.
Other specific features of different species of organisms. In yeasts, the GAT triplet, and, possibly, the entire GA family encodes the replacement of the amino acid leucine - threonine. In ssavtsiv, the TAG triplet may have the same meaning as TAC, and substituting amino acids methionine for isoleucine. The triplets of TCH and TCC in the DNA of mitochondria of some species do not signify any amino acids, but form nonsense triplets.
The order of triplets, genealogy, specificity and versatility are the most important characteristics of the genetic code of yoga uninterruptedness і non-overwriting of codons during reading. Tse means that the sequence of nucleotides is counted triplet for triplet without gaps, with which reason the triplet does not overlap one one, so that the skin of the nucleotide enters up to the warehouse of only one triplet when the reading frame is set (Fig. 3.29).
Speaking about the genetic code, we could see the coding lance of DNA on the outside. The same sequence of nucleotides is shown in the informational, or matrix, RNA with the uranium substitution of the RNA nucleotide with the nitrogenous base thymine for the ribose nucleotide, which includes uracil (Y) (Div. Fig. 3.28).
Rice. 3.29. Scheme of the identity of the nucleotides in the codons of iRNA
The mRNA triplets that correspond to the DNA triplet are also called codons. In fact, the very same linear expansion directly determines the order of inclusion of amino acids in the synthesis on the ribosome of the polypeptide lance.
Structural-functional unit of decay information - gene. The gene from the molecular biological point of view is the key of the DNA molecule, the sequence of nucleotides (codons) which indicates the sequence of amino acids in one polypeptide. At to this particular type polypeptide - elementary, simplest sign. However, we know that a lot of functionally active proteins, which form a quarter structural organization, are composed of decal subunits, which are often divided, - polypeptides. For example, hemoglobin includes two α- and β-lances. Later, for the development of such a folded sign, there are already not one, but two genes: the first one determines the structure of α-lances, and the other - β-lances of hemoglobin. Looking at the folded signs, we understand that the lot of more genes takes the fate of the development.
Nutrition 1. What are the chemical terms called carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates- a large group of organic spoluk, yakі enter the warehouse of living cells. The term "carbohydrates" was first introduced by the scientist K. Schmidt in the middle of the last century (1844). In a new report about a group of speeches, the molecule of some of them has a common formula: Сn(Н2О)n -coal and water.
Carbohydrates are divided into 3 groups: monosaccharides (for example, glucose, fructose, mannose), oligosaccharides (include 2 to 10 excess monosaccharides: sucrose, lactose), polysaccharides (high molecular weight, for example, glycogen, starch).
Carbons have two main functions: life and energy. For example, cellulose strengthens the walls of plant cells: the folding polysaccharide chitin is the main structural component of the arthropod skeleton. Budіvelnu funktsіyu khіtin vykonuє in fungi. Carbohydrates play the role of the main energy source in clitin. During the oxidation process, 1 g of carbohydrates changes
17.6 kJ energy. Starch in roslins and glycogen in creatures, which are found in clitins, serve as an energy reserve.
The very carbohydrates of ancient living substances (prokaryotes and roslin) became the basis for the establishment of a vikopny paliva - oil, gas, vugill.
Nutrition 2. What are mono-disaccharides? Bring examples.
Monosaccharides- ce in carbohydrates, the number of carbon atoms (n) in some of them is relatively small (from 3 to 6-10). Monosaccharides sound like a cyclic form; the most important among them are hexoses
(n = 6) and pentose (n = 5). Glucose is added to hexoses, as it is the most important product of photosynthesis of roslin and one of the main sources of energy for creatures; fructose is also wide - fruity tsukor, which gives a licorice relish to fruits and honey. Pentose ribose and deoxyribose enter the warehouse of nucleic acids. Tetrosy have 4 (n = 4), and trios, obviously, 3 (n = 3) carbon atoms. If two monosaccharides are combined in one molecule, this is called a disaccharide. Warehouses (monomers) of the disaccharide can be the same number of different ones. So, two glucoses dissolve maltose, and glucose and fructose - sucrose. Maltose is an intermediate product of starch overtreatment; Sucrose - the same zukr, which you can buy in the store.
All the stinks are kindly distinguished by the water, and the variability of them significantly increases with the rise in temperature.
Nutrition 3. What is the simplest carbohydrate as a monomer for starch, glycogen, cellulose?
Monosaccharides, working one by one, can make polysaccharides. The widest range of polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose) is a special rank of linked glucose molecules. Glucose є hexose (chemical formula С6Н12О6) and maє kіlka -OH - group. For rahunok zv'yazkіv zv'azkіv mіzh them okrі molecules of glucose zdatnі moldovat linear (cellulose) and galvanized (starch, glycogen) polymers. Medium rose such a polymer is a sprat of thousands of glucose molecules.
Nutrition 4. From what organic layers are proteins formed?
Proteins are high-molecular polymeric organic speech, which determine the structure and life of the cell and the organism as a whole. The structural unit, the monomer of this biopolymer molecule is an amino acid. 20 amino acids take part in the enlightenment of proteins. Before the warehouse of the skin protein molecule, there are several amino acids in the most powerful protein of the kilkisny spіvіnіdnіnі thа order оf thawing оf the polypeptide lanciug. Amino acids are organic molecules that create a wild plan for life: a carbon atom, an atom with water, an acid group (-COOH), an amino group
(-NH 2) and a radical. Various amino acids (skin may be called) are less likely to be treated with a common radical. Amino acids are amphoteric compounds that link one to one with a protein molecule for additional peptide bonds. Tsim zumovlena їhnya zdatnіst vzaєmodіyati one with one. Two amino acids join into one molecule by means of a bond between the acidic carbon and the nitrogen of the main group (- NH - CO -) as seen by the water molecule. The link between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group is covalent. In my opinion, it is called a peptide bond.
A group of two amino acids is called a dipeptide, three - a tripeptide, etc., and a group that consists of 20 amino acid residues and more - a polypeptide.
Proteins that enter the warehouse of living organisms include hundreds and thousands of amino acids. The order of their powers in the molecules of proteins is the most manipulative, the difference between their powers is the lowest.
Nutrition 5. How are secondary and tertiary protein structures established?
The order, quantity and quality of amino acids, which enter the warehouse of the protein molecule, determine its primary structure (for example, insulin). Proteins of the primary structure can, for the help of water bonds, bind at the helix and establish the secondary structure (for example, keratin). Rich proteins, for example collagen, function in the form of a twisted spiral. Polypeptide lances, twisting in a sing-like order into a compact structure, form a globule (coil), which is the tertiary structure of the protein. Changing one amino acid into a polypeptide lancet can lead to a change in the protein configuration and a decrease, or it can lead to the participation in biochemical reactions. Larger whites can form a third structure. Amino acids are less active on the surface of the globule.
Nutrition 6. Name the main functions of proteins.
Proteins have the following functions:
enzymatic (for example, amylase, which breaks down into carbohydrates). Enzymes win the function of catalysts in chemical reactions and take part in all biological processes.
structural (for example, to enter the warehouse of cell membranes). Structural proteins take part in the illumination of membranes and organoids of cells. Collagen protein enters into the warehouse of intercellular speech of the bone and healthy tissue, and keratin is the main component of hair, nails, pir'ya.
receptor (for example, rhodopsin, spray to the shortest dawn).
transport (for example, hemoglobin, to carry oxygen or carbon dioxide).
zahisnu (for example, immunoglobulins that take part in the established immunity).
rukhov (for example, actin, myosin, take their fate from the short-lived m'yazovyh fibers). The short-lived function of the whites ensures the body's ability to collapse at the sight of the short-lived m'yaziv.
hormonal (for example, insulin, which converts glucose into glycogen). Protein-hormones provide regulatory function. The protein nature is caused by growth hormone (it is too much for children to produce gigantism), hormones that regulate the work of nirok and іn.
energy (with splitting of 1 g of protein, 4.2 kcal of energy is seen). The energy function of the proteins is started to fail when they are too much, or, on the contrary, when there is a strong excess of cells. Most of all, we are afraid, like a mealy protein, over-digested, broken down to amino acids, for which then the proteins necessary for the body are established.
Nutrition 7. What is protein denaturation? What can cause denaturation?
Denaturation- the loss of a protein molecule of its normal (“natural”) life: tertiary, secondary and navit primary structure. During denaturation, the protein coil and helix are twisted; water, and then the peptide bonds collapse. The denaturation of the protein is not designed to change its function. The reasons for denaturation are high temperature, ultraviolet exposure, strong acids and acids, important metals, organic retailers. Butt denaturation є varіnnya chicken egg. Instead of a raw egg, it is rare and easy to grow. Ale, already for a sprat of whilin, perebuvannya at the sprinkler, it changes its consistency, strengthens. The reason is the denaturation of oval protein to albumin: one ball-like, separate molecules-globules in water are unrolled, and then they fold one by one, making a solid thread.
When the minds are full of denaturations, the proteins of the building will restore their structure anew, thus destroying the original structure. This process is called renaturation.
Nutrition 1. What are the chemical terms called carbohydrates?
In carbohydrates, there is a large group of natural organic soils. Carbohydrates are subdivided into three main classes: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. A disaccharide is the combination of two monosaccharides; Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. Carbohydrates are used in living organisms for energy, reserve and vital functions. The rest is especially important for roslins, the clitin wall of which is more importantly composed of cellulose polysaccharide. The very carbohydrates of ancient living substances (prokaryotes and roslin) became the basis for the establishment of a vikopny paliva - oil, gas, vugill.
Nutrition 2. What are mono-disaccharides? Bring examples.
Monosaccharides - ce in carbohydrates, the number of carbon atoms (n) in them is not large (from 3 to 6-10). Monosaccharides sound like a cyclic form; The most important middle ones are hexoses (n = 6) and pentoses (n = 5). Glucose is added to hexoses, as it is the most important product of photosynthesis of roslin and one of the main sources of energy for creatures; fructose is also widely spread - fruity tsukor, which gives a licorice relish to fruits and honey. Pentose ribose and deoxyribose enter the warehouse of nucleic acids. If two monosaccharides are combined in one molecule, this is called a disaccharide. Warehouse parts (monomiri) of the disaccharide can be the same size. So, two glucoses make up maltose, and glucose and fructose make up sucrose. Maltose is an intermediate product of starch overtreatment; tsukro-za - with the same tsukr, which you can buy in the store.
Nutrition 3. What is the simplest carbohydrate as a monomer for starch, glycogen, cellulose?
Monosaccharides, working one by one, can make polysaccharides. The widest range of polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose) is a special rank of linked glucose molecules. Glucose є hexose (chemical formula C 6 H 12 0 6) and maє dekilka OH-group. For rahunok zv'yazkіv zv'azkіv mіzh them okrі molecules of glucose zdatnі moldovat linear (cellulose) and galvanized (starch, glycogen) polymers. The average size of such a polymer is a few thousand molecules of glucose.
Nutrition 4. From which organic layers are proteins formed?
Proteins are heteropolymers that are made up of 20 types of amino acids, linked together by special, so-called, peptide bonds. Amino acids are organic molecules that create a wild plan for life: a carbon atom, an atom with water, an acid group (-COOH), an amino group (-NH 2) and a radical. Various amino acids (skin may be called) are less likely to be treated with a common radical. The fusion of the peptide linkage is related to the structure of the acid group and the amino group of two amino acids, mixing the order in the protein molecule.
Nutrition 5. How are secondary and tertiary protein structures established?
Lance of amino acids that form the basis of the protein molecule, its primary structure. Both positively charged amino groups and negatively charged acidic groups of amino acids cause water bonds. The establishment of these bonds calls for the pharynx of the protein molecule in the helix.
Protein helix - the secondary structure of the protein. At the onset stage, during the interplay between amino acid radicals, the proteins are folded into a ball (globule) or a thread (fibril). This structure of the molecule is called tertiary; the very same biologically active form of the protein, which has an individual specificity and singing function.
Nutrition 6. Name the main functions of proteins.
Proteins win in living organisms in supra-linguistically different functions.
One of the largest groups of proteins is enzymes. They win the function of catalysts in chemical reactions and take part in all biological processes.
Rich proteins win the structural function, taking part in the illumination of membranes and organoids of cells. Collagen protein enters into the warehouse of intercellular speech of the bone and healthy tissue, and keratin is the main component of hair, nails, pir'ya.
The short-lived function of whites ensures the body's ability to collapse for additional short-term m'yaziv. This function is dominated by such proteins, like actin and myosin.
Transport proteins are capable of carrying and transferring different speeches like the middle cells, as well as throughout the whole organism. Before them, for example, hemoglobin, which transports molecules of acid and carbon dioxide, can be seen.
Protein-hormones provide regulatory function. The protein nature is caused by the growth hormone (yogo is superfluous in children to produce gigantism), insulin, hormones that regulate the work of nirok, and so on.
Overwhelmingly important are the whites, which will kill the function. Immunoglobulins (antibodies) are the main participants in immune reactions; stinks protect the body from bacteria and viruses. Fibrinogen and a number of other proteins in plasma protect blood pharynx and blood loss. Material from the site
The energy function of the proteins is started to fail when they are too much, or, on the contrary, when there is a strong excess of cells. Most of all, we are afraid, like a mealy protein, being digested, broken down to amino acids, from which we then create proteins that are necessary for the body.
Nutrition 7. What is protein denaturation? What can cause denaturation?
Denaturation is the loss of a protein molecule of its normal (“natural”) life: tertiary, secondary and navit primary structure. During denaturation, the protein coil and helix are twisted; water, and then the peptide bonds collapse. The denaturation of the protein is not designed to change its function. The reasons for denaturation are high temperature, ultra-violet weathering, strong acids and meadows, important metals, organic retailers. The butt of denaturation is the boiled chicken egg. Instead of a raw egg, it is rare and easy to grow. Ale, already for a sprat of whilin, perebuvannya at the sprinkler, it changes its consistency, strengthens. The reason is the denaturation of the egg protein to albumin: some ball-like, separate molecules-globules in water are unrolled, and then they merge one by one, fixing a firm thread.
Chi did not know those who were joking? Speed up with a joke
On this side of the material behind the topics:
- in short carbohydrates
- sho take mono and disaccharides bring butt
Guess!
What speeches are called biological polymers?
What is the meaning of carbohydrates in nature?
Name your proteins. What are the functions of the stink?
Carbohydrates (zukri). This is a large group of natural organic fields. In creatures of clitin in carbohydrates, the amount of trochs is more than 5% dry mass, and some growing plants (for example, potato bulbs) can be 90% dry excess. Carbohydrates are divided into three main classes: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides riboseі deoxyribose enter the warehouse of nucleic acids (Fig. 11). Glucose present in clitins of all organisms and is one of the main sources of energy for creatures. Widely wide in nature fructose- fruity tsukor, which is significantly malty among other sugars. Cei monosaccharide gives licorice relish to the fruits of roslin and honey.
As in one molecule two monosaccharides are combined, this is called disaccharide. The widest disaccharide in nature - sucrose, abore cane tsukor, - it is composed of glucose and fructose (Fig. 12). Її win from tsukrovy cane or tsukrovy beetroots. The same won and є by the same "tsukr", which we buy in the store.
Rice. 11. Structural formulas of monosaccharides
Rice. 12. Structural formula of sucrose (disaccharide)
Rice. 13. Budova polysaccharides
Folding in carbohydrates polysaccharides, what are formed from simple Tsukrіv, wink in the body of a sprat important functions(Fig. 13). Krokhmal for roslinta glycogen for creatures and mushrooms, it is a reserve of living speeches and energy.
Starch is stored in growing plants like the so-called starch grains. The greatest amount of yoga is found in potato bulbs and in native legumes and cereals. Glycogen in the backbones is replaced by the head rank in liver cells and meats. Starch, glycogen and cellulose are stimulated by glucose molecules.
Celluloseі chitin vikonuyut structural and zahisnu functions in living organisms. Cellulose, or cellular tissue, strengthens the walls of growing clitins. Zagal won't take the first place of the Earth in the middle of all organic fields. For its everyday life, chitin, close to cellulose, becomes the basis of the arthropod skeleton and enters the warehouse of the clitin wall of mushrooms.
Proteins (polypeptides). One of the most important organic sources in living nature is proteins. Live skin cells have more than a thousand kinds of protein molecules at once. I in the skin protein has its own special, more powerful function. About the primary role of these folding speeches, it was guessed at the beginning of the 20th century, and they themselves were given the name proteins(Vid Greek. Protos - First). In different clitins, whites often fall in the amount of 50 to 80% of dry mass.
Rice. 14. General structural formula of amino acids, which can be included in the warehouse of proteins
Budova bіlkіv. Long-term protein lances were induced by all of 20 different types of amino acids, which may have a wild plan for life, but only one type after one for the life radical (R) (Fig. 14). One by one, the amino acid molecules make up the so-called peptide bonds (Fig. 15).
Two polypeptide lances, which form the hormone of the subcutaneous layer - insulin, contain 21 and 30 amino acid residues. These are one of the shortest "words" in the Belarusian language. Myoglobin is a protein that binds the acid in the m'yazovy tissue, it is made up of 153 amino acids. Collagen protein, which forms the basis of collagen fibers for healthy tissue and safety, consists of three polypeptide lances, the skin of which contains about 1000 amino acid deposits.
The last expansion of amino acid residues linked by peptide bonds, є primary structure protein and linear molecule (Fig. 16). Twisting at the look of the spiral, the white thread swells up more than the high level of the organization - secondary structure. When you get there, the helix of the polypeptide is folded, making the tangle (globule) of fibril. same taka tretin structure protein and yogo biologically active form, which may have individual specificity. However, for low proteins, the tretinous structure is not residual.
Rice. 15. Conjugation of a peptide link between two amino acids
Rice. 16. Budov protein molecule: A - primary; B - secondary; B - tertiary; G - quarter structure
You can use quarter structure- Combining a number of protein globules or fibril into a single working complex. So, for example, a foldable hemoglobin molecule is composed of several polypeptides, and only such a molecule can achieve its function.
Functions of whites. The size of the range of protein molecules can be seen as the widest range of their functions (Fig. 17, 18). Close to 10 thousand. proteins-enzymes serve as catalysts for chemical reactions. The stench will take care of the blessed work of the biochemical ensemble of cells of living organisms, speeding up the richness of chemical reactions.
Rice. 17. Main groups of proteins
A friend for the size of the group blіkiv vikonuє structuralі Rukhova functions. Proteins take part in the established membranes and organoids of cells. Collagen enters the warehouse of intercellular speech of good and bone tissue, and the main component of hair, horns and pir'ya, nails and accumulates є keratin protein. Actin and myosin take care of the short-term function of myosin.
Transport proteins bind and carry different speech and in the middle of cells and throughout the whole organism.
Rice. 18. Proteins are synthesized either in the clitin for intracellular stasis, or the name is given for vikoristanny on the equal organism
Protein hormones secure the regulatory function.
For example, somatotropic hormone, which is vibrated by the hypophysis, regulates the high exchange rate of speech and flows into growth. A small amount of excess of this hormone in a child's age can, apparently, lead to the development of dwarfism and gigantism.
Super important zahisna the function of whites. When foreign proteins, viruses or bacteria get into the body of a person, immunoglobulins - bacteria are infected. Fibrinogen and prothrombin protect blood pharynx, protecting the body from blood loss. Bіlkіv i zahisna funktіya deshcho іnshoy. Rich arthropods, ribeye, snakes and other creatures see toxins - strongly destroy the protein nature. Proteins and the strongest microbial toxins, for example, botulinum, diphtheria, cholera.
In case of non-stasis in the organisms of creatures, active decomposition of proteins to end products begins, and cym is realized energetic function of these polymers. With complete splitting of 1 g of protein, 17.6 kJ of energy is seen.
Denaturation and renaturation of proteins. Denaturation- the consumption of a protein molecule with its own structural organization: quarter, tertiary, secondary, and for the most minds - primary structure (Fig. 19). As a result of denaturation, the proteins lose their function. The reasons for denaturation can be high temperature, ultraviolet exposure, strong acids and acids, important metals and organic compounds.
Rice. 19. Protein denaturation
Disinfection power of ethyl alcohol is rooted in its viability and denaturation of bacterial proteins, which leads to the death of microorganisms.
Denaturation can be reversible and non-reversible, private and new. Sometimes, as if the injection of denaturing factors did not appear to be too strong and the destruction of the primary structure of the molecule did not occur, with the present friendly minds of denaturing proteins, you can restore your trivimir form. This process is called renaturation, and wines reconsiderably bring the deposit of the tertiary structure of the protein to the sequence of amino acid residues, to that of the primary structure.
Food for repetition and task
1. What chemical half are called carbohydrates?
2. What are mono-i disaccharides? Bring examples.
3. What is the simplest carbohydrate as a monomer for starch, glycogen, cellulose?
4. From what organic layers are proteins formed?
5. How are the secondary and tertiary structures of the protein established?
6. Name the main functions of proteins.
7. What is protein denaturation? What can cause denaturation?
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